UNITED STAT 




^. 




FQQ. SCHOOLS 

■ EDMOND S.MEANY 






>- 1 







Class _£X22 
Book 




Copyright N^__l 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 
FOR SCHOOLS 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO 
SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO . Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 




From the Statue by Augustus St. Gaudens in Lincoln Park. Chicago 

Abraham Lincoln, 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 
FOR SCHOOLS 



BY 

EDMOND S. MEANY 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON 
PRESIDENT OF THE MOUNTAINEERS; AUTHOR OF " VAN- 
■ COUVER'S discovery of PUGET SOUND " AND 
" HISTORY OF THE STATE OF WASHINGTON " 



WITH MANY MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1912 

AH rights reserved 



Copyright, 1912, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1912. 



Norfajooli ilrtas 

J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



^^ 



ICIA30539« 
MO. I? 



PREFACE 

The Committee of Eight of the American Historical 
Association, in its final report (1909) on " The Study of 
History in the Elementary Schools," impressed upon 
writers and teachers of American history that they should 
keep the European background constantly in mind. In 
other words, American history is but a part of world his- 
tory and can best be understood when presented as such. 
In this book especial effort has been made to conform to 
that sane and timely suggestion. Not only have the 
events usually considered as the European background 
received attention, but so also have such events as the in- 
dependence of Latin America, the expansion of Canada, 
and the awakening of the Orient. The treatment of all 
such events has necessarily been brief, but enough of the 
facts are given to provide the pupil the essential perspec- 
tive to enable him to realize his own country's develop- 
ment in relation to the rest of the world. 

A glance at the table of contents will show that a 
natural plan of division and grouping of the materials has 
been adopted. As suggestions for References and Home 
Readings a few easily obtained books are cited in each 
chapter. All controversial questions are treated in a spirit 
of fairness. The author has aimed to give the text a deep 
human interest, but he believes that, in so doing he has not 
sacrificed accuracy. It was once the style to place the 
humanizing anecdote or illuminating biographical fact in 



vi Preface 

fine print as a footnote. There are no fine-print notes 
in this book. But the choice morsels are not omitted. 
They are woven into the general fabric to illuminate the 
text itself. 

In preparing the book for publication I have had help 
from my colleagues, Professors Edward O. Sisson, Edward 
McMahon, and Vernon L. Parrington, in the University of 
Washington, and from Miss A. L. Rouse with The Mac- 
millan Company. To each of them I wish to acknowledge 
my gratitude for kindly interest and numerous suggestions 
for improvements in the text. 

EDMOND S. MEANY. 

University of Washington, 
Seattle, November, 1911. 



SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHERS 

The attainment of a proper perspective is the aim of 
every earnest teacher of history. The day has passed 
when the relatively easy but slavish work of memorizing 
lists of names and dates will suffice for real training in this 
important field of knowledge. Every aid is of value which 
will enable teacher and pupil to grip the meaning, the 
movement, the perspective of history. The chief aid here 
offered along this line is the arrangement of the materials 
in eight principal groups or periods. This is a distinct 
departure from the older and less natural plan of grouping 
the facts around the wars and the administrations of the 
Presidents. The "Period of Discovery and Settlement" 
is followed by the " Expansion of the Colonies." The 
"Securing of Independence" is followed by "The Critical 
Period," which embraces only six years. Those years, 
from 1783 when our independence was secured to 1789 
when the Constitution was put in force, were so full of 
meaning to the rest of our history that John Fiske's name 
for the period is fully justified. The next two periods are 
each forty years in length. The first, from Washington to 
Jackson (i 789-1 829), is called " Testing the Constitution." 
In this period the government was organized. Chief Justice 
Marshall's great decisions were given to interpret the Con- 
stitution and the laws, political parties were formed and 
reformed, new areas were acquired in the Louisiana and 
Florida purchases, the Missouri Compromise was adopted, 



viii Suggestions to the Teachers 

and the Monroe Doctrine was announced. These and 
other events there treated show the test to which the Con- 
stitution was submitted. The forty years from Jackson to 
Grant (1829- 1 869) contain such events as the awakening 
of the West, introduction of the spoils system, contest over 
nuUification, destruction of the bank, settlement of the 
Oregon question, war with Mexico, Compromise of 1850, 
Secession, Civil War, and Reconstruction. This period 
surely deserves the title " Straining the Constitution." 
The time from 1869 to the present is divided into two 
periods whose names are self-explanatory : " The United 
States a Greater Nation," and " The United States a 
Greater World Power." The table of contents shows in 
outline how the forty-five chapters have been arranged 
under this natural plan of subdivision. The perspective of 
each section expands into that of the chapter and of each 
chapter into the group or period and, as shown above, the 
right groups make clear the perspective of the whole work. 

Wars have influenced American history. There was a 
time when textbooks indicated that the Revolution, the 
Mexican War, and the Civil War, with a few connecting 
paragraphs, were about all that were necessary to record. 
Such treatment now seems ridiculous in the light of the 
splendid achievements of peace. In studying the wars 
themselves the idea of proper perspective must be held 
firmly in mind. Besides the heroics there must always be 
remembered the burdens and the awful sorrows of such 
struggles, not only of those on the fields but of those in the 
homes as well. 

The numerous maps and illustrations have been carefully 
selected to assist the two main objects of the text : first, 
the orderly movement of American history, and, second, 



Suggestions to the Teachers ix 

the relation of that movement to the rest of the world. 
The teacher should supplement these aids with any other 
pictures available, and especially with additional maps. 
The correlation of history and geography is of the highest 
pedagogical value. Have your pupils draw maps on paper 
or blackboard and then have them discussed in class. 
Keen and helpful interest can be aroused in such exercises 
by selecting maps of disputed boundaries, important 
battles, first roads, or other items in or near the locality of 
your school. 

The chronological tables and the study questions will be 
found helpful in reviews, but the teacher should not hesi- 
tate to use other questions. In doing this, however, let 
your attitude be that of a leader and not that of a detec- 
tive. Never dishearten a pupil by unfair or trick 
questions. 

Another exercise that will prove of interest and value is 
to have your advanced pupils show some of the contrasts 
between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution, 
both of which are among the documents in the Appendix. 

Words difficult of pronunciation have no place in a book 
of this character. It is not possible, however, to avoid the 
difficult names of men and places. The pronunciation of 
these is carefully indicated in the index. By causing the 
pupil to make frequent use of the index for this and other 
obvious purposes you will encourage the desired " dic- 
tionary habit," as well as increase the value of the book 
and its work. 

Outside reading by teacher and pupil for each lesson is 
highly desirable. At the beginning of each chapter will 
be found works for reference and for home readings. 
These lists arc made brief for a purpose. It would have 



X Suggestions to the Teachers 

been very easy to supply longer lists. In practice it is 
found that the long lists are more confusing than useful. 
A few good books have been selected, and the citations to 
them are carried through from chapter to chapter. The 
acquisition and famihar use of those few books will prove 
far more practicable and beneficial in the average school 
than would a chance reference now and then selected from 
a long bibliography. The few books cited from chapter 
to chapter and the prices at which they may be obtained 
from any bookseller are as follows : — 

American History, by Roscoe Lewis Ashley, Head of the Depart- 
ment of History in the High School of Pasadena, California $1.40 
Source Book of American History, by Albert Bushnell Hart. Pro- 
fessor of History in Harvard University .... .60 

An Introduction to the History of Western Europe, by James Har- 
vey Robinson, Professor of History in Columbia University . i .60 
The Men who made the Nation, by Edwin Erie Sparks, Presi- 
dent of Pennsylvania .State College ..... .50 

Source Readers in American History, edited by Professor Albert 
Bushnell Hart ; four volumes : 

Volume I. Colonial Children ...... .40 

Volume II. Camps and Firesides of the Revolution . .50 

Volume III. How our Grandfathers Lived . . . .60 

Volume IV. The Romance of the Civil War . . . .60 

Pioneer History Stories, by Charles A. McMurry ; three volumes : 

Volume I. Pioneers on Land and Sea 40 

Volume II. Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley . . .40 

Volume III. Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the 

West 40 

It is thus seen that for the expenditure of a small sum 
a good working library of reference may be obtained. 
Other books and poems are cited at the head of the chap- 
ters. They are easily obtained in any community of 
American homes. Teachers desiring more complete bib- 



Suggestions to the Teachers xi 

liographies can obtain an abundance of help from such a 
standard work as Channing and Hart's Guide to the Study 
of American History. 

Persuade your pupils to begin the collection of indi- 
vidual libraries. They may have to begin by saving and 
classifying clippings from newspapers and magazines. 
Whatever the beginning, the growth of the boy's or the 
girl's library in American history will prove one of the 
surest ways of awakening and holding interest in the sub- 
ject so fundamental to good American citizenship. 

If you are a teacher in a rural school, you will find this 
book a complete working tool, but you should be willing 
and ready to use all the aids provided in the book. You 
should also be willing, if necessary, to spend some of your 
own money for the few reference books indicated above. 
If you are in a city school, surrounded by good libraries, 
you can do all the rural teacher does and much more, for 
you can draw on the world's storehouse of knowledge in 
collected books. Prepare for each lesson from the best 
sources available and do not rest content unless you feel 
each day that you have helped some young American 
minds to have greater respect for truth, greater love for 
home and Nation. 



\ 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



I. PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Why Europe explored the Oceans . . . i 

II. America is Found and Named .... 8 

III. Explorations and Settlements by Spain . . 24 

IV. England secures Virginia 37 

V. Settlement of New France and New Netherland 50 

VI. First New England Colony and New Sweden . 57 

II. EXPANSION OF THE COLONIES 

VII. Growth of Virginia 68 

VIII. Southern Neighbors of Virginia .... 78 

IX. Increase of New England Colonies ... 88 

X. The Dutch and Quaker Colonies .... loi 

XI. New England United 114 

XII. Expansion of New France 124 

XIII. Home Life and Institutions 129 

XIV. Struggle for the Mastery in North America . 146 

III. SECURING INDEPENDENCE 

XV. The Wrangle over Taxation . . . .170 

XVI. First Half of the Revolution . . . .189 

XVII. Second Half of the Revolution . . . .213 

XVIII. Winning the Victory of Peace (1781-1783) . . 230 



XIV 



Table of Contents 



IV. "THE CRITICAL PERIOD" (17S3-1789) 

CHAFTER 

XIX. The Independent States .... 
XX. The Weak General Government 
XXI. Building the Strong Constitution . 



PAGE 
238 



V. TESTING THE CONSTITUTION 

XXII. Organizing the New Government . . . 257 

XXIII. Relations with the Outside World . . 269 

XXIV. Political and Industrial Events (i 798-1 808) 280 
XXV. The War of 1812 293 

XXVI. Development following the War 

XXVII. The Expanding West . 

XXVIII. America's New Neighbors . 

XXIX. Five Years of Rapid Change . 



312 
319 
325 
332 



VI. STRAINING THE CONSTITUTION 

XXX. The Jacksonian Era 

XXXI. A Decade of Expansion and Invention (1840 

1850) 

XXXII. A Decade that led to War (1850-1860) 

XXXI II. Secession and Civil War .... 

XXXIV. First Year of the Civil War . 
XXXV. Second Year of the Civil War 

XXXVI. Third Year of the Civil War. 
XXXVII. Fourth Year of the Civil War 
XXXVIII. Reconstruction 



343 

353 

378 

398 
407 
421 

431 
438 
449 



Table of Contents 



XV 



VII. THE UNITED STATES A GREATER NATION 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXXIX. Adjustments and Progress .... 460 

XL. Celebrations and Labor Troubles . . . 469 

XLI. New States and Territories . •. . . 481 

XLII. Broader Views 490 



VIII. THE UNITED STATES A GREATER WORLD 
POWER 



XLIII. Spanish-American War 
XLIV. The Larger World . . . . 
XLV. National Duties and Opportunities 



498 
508 
521 



APPENDICES 

I. Declaration of Independence 

II. Articles of Confederation . 

III. Constitution of the United States 

IV. Table of Presidents 

V. Table of States and Territories 

INDEX 



539 

543 
554 
570 

571 

573 



PAGE MAPS 



The World as known in 1490 ..... 

Map showing Routes of Cokimbus and Other Discoverers 

Map showing the Voyage of Magellan and his Ship 

Captain John Smith's Map of New England 

English Colonies in America prior to 1763 (^color) 

Map of the West during the Revolution 

Boundaries obtained by the United States, 1783 {color^ 

Western Land Claims {color) ..... 

United States in 1800 {color) ..... 

Western United States when Fremont was a Pathfinder 
United States in 1853 {color) ..... 

United States (1861) showing First and Second Secessions of 

Slave States {color) ...... . facing ip"] 

The United States in 1909 {color) .... . facing /^i,() 

Relief Map of the United States 480 

Territorial Growth of the United States {color) . between 490 and 491 
The World with special reference to United States and Depend- 
ent Territories {color) ..... between 520 and 521 







PAGE 




. 


10 






17 






20 






48 


.fa 


-iiig 


171 
216 


.facing 27,/^ 




u 


234 




u 


280 


. facing 


378 



MAPS IN THE TEXT 



Toscanelli's Map 

United States in 1790 . 

Overland Trails . 

Map of the Cumberland Road 

United States in 1820 . 

Territory affected by the Missouri Compromise 

United States in 1840 . 

Adoption of Manhood Suffrage 

Free and Slave Areas (1844) 

Free and Slave Areas (1857) 



260 
287 

315 
321 

323 
355 
362 

391 
392 



I 

Period of Discovery and Settlement 

CHAPTER I 

WHY EUROPE EXPLORED THE OCEANS 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 1-22; Robinson's 
Western Europe, pp. 334-340, 347-35° • 

Home Readings. — Brooks's The Story of Marco Polo ; Fiske's Dis- 
covery of America ; Hale's Stories of Discovery ; Hart's Source Reader, 
Vol. I., pp. 1-3; Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella ; Wright's Stories 
in American History. 

1. First Discovery of America. — Eric the Red was one 

of those hardy Norsemen who made wonderful voyages of 
conquest and discovery a thousand years ago. He had a 
son, who is often referred to as "Leif the Lucky," but 
whose proper name in history is Leif Ericson. This young 
man is entitled to the credit of having discovered America 
nearly five hundred years before the eventful voyage by 
Columbus. Those Norsemen were as bold seamen and as 
brave warriors as the world has known. In open boats, 
propelled by sails and oars, they traveled fearlessly thou- 
sands of miles from their homes. In this way they had 
gone from Scandinavia to Iceland (870) and then to Green- 
land, which name they used in the hope that it would at- 
tract settlers. In reality that bleak land is green for only 



United States History for Schools 



a short time each year. From Greenland Leif Ericson 
sailed, in the year looo, southward to a land covered with 
timber. It was certainly a much better place than Green- 
land. They found corn growing and grapes in abundance. 
Ericson and his crew spent the winter in the new land, 

and as they sailed away. 




i?? 



they called it " Vinland the 
Good." The Norsemen 
returned to Vinland ( 1007), 
but probably the savage 
character of the natives 
caused them to abandon 
such trips after that second 
voyage. The exact situa- 
tion of Vinland is unknown. 
It may have been in Labra- 
dor or it may have been 
in New England, Those 
voyages were made so long 
ago that we are fortunate 
in having any accurate in- 
formation of them saved 
for us. That was before the days of printing. The Norse- 
men saved their records in the form of stories or sagas. 
These were handed down from memory by generations of 
Saga men. While the voyages to Vinland were fresh in 
the memory of those who had known Ericson, Adam of 
Bremen visited Denmark (1047). When he went home, 
he put the story in his book. That old book is important, 
for its account corresponds well with that handed down by 
the Saga men. The Norsemen's story of Vinland appears 
in the Saga of Eric the Red. It was handed down from 



-^vfi 



J«^^^•>^:.:% %W^ 



Ship of the Norsemen. 



Why Europe explored the Oceans 3 

memory for three centuries before it was written in a book 

(1305)- 

For a long time the honor of discovering America was 
withheld from the Norsemen. There are two reasons 
for this : they did not follow up their discovery with a 
permanent colony, and Europe knew little or nothing of 
those voyages of looo. In China, Japan, and other 
countries of eastern Asia, there are claims that America 
was discovered by those Orientals hundreds of years before 
the work of the Norsemen. It may be that the future will 
establish some of those claims, but, even so, they cannot 
dim the credit due those hardy Norsemen. For precisely 
the same reason is credit for real discovery due Columbus, 
notwithstanding the voyage of " Leif the Lucky." 

2. New Era dawning in Europe. ^ — ^ While the Norsemen 
boldly sailed forth from the coasts of Scandinavia to un- 
known seas and lands, the Mediterranean Sea remained 
the principal center of the world's commerce. Such had 
been the case in ancient times when Greece and Rome 
were dominant, and it continued so, under changed condi- 
tions, through the Middle Ages. As the differing circum- 
stances increased in number and importance, the people of 
Europe gave more and more of their attention to the At- 
lantic Ocean. Many of those changes reached a climax 
in the last half of the fifteenth century. This fact has 
caused writers to fix in that period the beginning of modern 
history, as distinguished from the older divisions of medi- 
eval and ancient history. Among the changes referred 
to were the increased knowledge of the Orient brought 
about through the Crusades and the travels of Marco Polo, 
the use of gunpowder, the invention of printing, and the 
obstructions raised in the old paths of trade by the Turks 



4 United States History for Schools 

and other Mohammedan peoples. These facts not only in- 
fluenced conditions at the dawn of a new era in Europe, 
but they also had much to do with the beginnings of 
American history. It will be well to study a few of the 
most important events that helped to transfer Europe's 
center of interest from the Mediterranean Sea to the At- 
lantic Ocean. 

3. Results of the Crusades. — Inspired by religious zeal, 
thousands of men, and in one case thousands of children, 
traveled from Europe in the effort to rescue from unbe- 
lievers the Holy Land and more especially the Grave of 
Jesus. The men bore upon their breasts the figures of a 
cross, and hence these marchings were called Crusades, that 
word coming from the Latin crux, meaning cross. There 
were nine crusades from 1095 to 1277, and besides making 
more energetic the life of the Christians in Europe, the 
marching, shipbuilding, sailing, and fighting gave them 
more confidence in their abilities and strength. The sur- 
vivors of those armies brought home and spread among 
their neighbors a new desire for the spices, silks, and jewels 
they had found among the people of western Asia. Such 
Italian cities as Venice, Genoa, Florence, Pisa, and Amalfi 
had long enjoyed a trade in Oriental goods. These were 
brought by caravans of camels to some port on the Medi- 
terranean and were then shipped to the merchants in those 
cities who would in turn ship them for exchange to other 
countries. The returning Crusaders helped on this trade 
by greatly increasing the demand for the goods. 

4. Marco Polo. — Two Venetians traveled far into Asia, 
and on their second journey one of them took his son, 
Marco Polo, then but twenty years of age. The lad be- 
came a favorite of Kublai Khan, a great ruler who made 



Why Europe explored the Oceans 5 

use of the young man's talents. After spending nearly 
thirty years in that interesting country, which he called 
Cathay, he returned to Venice (1295) and gave the world 
one of its greatest known books of travel. He told of all 
the wonders he had seen or had heard about. One of 
those wonders was an island called Cipango, where the 
temple was roofed and the floors paved with gold " a good 
two fingers thick." All this made more people anxious to 
travel to such a land and to trade with such a people. 

5. Gunpowder. — ^The people of China had for centuries 
been using powder for bombs and rockets. When intro- 
duced into Europe, it was first used for fun and for cere- 
monies. Then it was 

used in wooden cannon 

to frighten horses in 

battle. When it was 

used in weapons, about 

1375, it speedily made j.,,,,,. i.,,,,,, ,,,. cannon. 

the iron armor of the 

proud knight of no avail. It was one of the principal 

agencies that helped to destroy the feudalism that had 

dominated the Middle Ages. 

6. Printing. — Not many people could afford to have 
libraries when all the books were written or copied by 
hand and for that reason cost large sums of money. It 
was a great improvement when short books were carved 
on wood and printed from blocks. In 1454 John Guten- 
berg, of Mainz, began printing from movable type. This 
came in the midst of the revival of learning, which charac- 
terized the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. 
Soon books began to multiply, intelligence increased, and 
the nations found new inspiration and new strength when 




6 United States History for Schools 

each possessed the beginnings of a literature in its own 
language. 

7. The Fall of Constantinople. — The growing trade in 
Oriental goods had been grievously taxed by the Moham- 
medans who had spread their dominion along the northern 
coasts of Africa and from Syria, through Asia Minor, to 
the gates of Constantinople. The Turks, one branch of 
the Mohammedans, laid siege, and in 1453 the great city 
fell into their hands. It became necessary for Europe 
to fight stubbornly against further Mohammedan invasion. 
It was highly desirable, also, that a way should be found 
to the spice lands of India by which the extortions of the 
Mohammedans could be avoided. 

8. Cape of Good Hope. — For years the brave seamen 
of Portugal, encouraged and helped by Prince Henry 
the Navigator, sailed along the shores of Africa seeking 
a way to India, and in i486 Dias found the way, far to 
the southward. From his experience there he called the 
point of land " Cape of Storms," but the king of Portugal, 
rejoicing over the great success, promptly changed the 
name to Cape of Good Hope. The route to India was 
found, but it was appalling in length and in danger. A 
dozen years passed before a voyage to the spice lands was 
completed. In 1498 Vasco da Gama anchored in the 
Bay of Calicut. 

9. Conquest of the Moors. — Seven centuries before 
Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, Spain 
had been conquered by another branch of the Moham- 
medans, known as Moors. They had crossed into Spain 
from the northwestern shore of Africa (712) and in twenty 
years made themselves masters of Spain. It took seven 
hundred and sixty years for the Spanish Christians to re- 



Why Europe explored the Oceans 7 

conquer their own lands. By the marriage of Queen Isa- 
bella of Castile and King Ferdinand of Leon two of the 
struggling Spanish armies were united, and the Moors 
were compelled to take what proved to be their last step in 
Granada. While besieging the enemy there in the spring 
of 1492, the Spanish camp was visited by an Italian mari- 
ner, who sought aid from the king and queen for a plan very 
dear to him. He wanted to find a way to India by sailing 
west from Europe. His request for aid was refused, and he 
started back with a heavy heart toward the monastery 
La Rabida, where he had left his little son Fernando. 
The Spanish armies were victorious. The Moors were 
conquered. There were great rejoicings and thanksgiv- 
ings. In the midst of them some one suggested that the 
rejected mariner be brought back. It was done. Since 
it seemed to the Spanish sovereigns that they were chosen 
of God to protect and to spread His faith, it was agreed 
that the mariner should be helped to carry the Gospel 
to the peoples of far lands. It was in this way that the 
early work of Spain in the new world took on something 
of the character of a crusade. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Trace on a map Leif Ericson's probable route to America. 

2. What was the center of the world's activities in 1450 ? 

3. How did the Crusades affect trade ? 

4. What made Marco Polo famous ? 

5. What were the first uses of gunpowder ? 

6. Why was the invention of printing important ? 

7. How did the Turks' conquest of Constantinople aiTect trade ? 

8. Of what does the name of the Cape of Good Hope remind you ? 

9. How did the conquest of the Moors in Spain help toward the 
discovery of America ? 

10. Trace the old trade routes to the Orient and show the need of 
new routes. 



CHAPTER II 

AMERICA IS FOUND AND NAMED 

References. — Ashley's American History, po. 24-38; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 1-6; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 350-352. 

Home Readings. — Hale's Stories of Discovery ; Hart's Source Reader, 
Vol. I., pp. 4-12 ; Irving's Columbus; King's De Soto in the Land of 
Florida; McAIurry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. I., pp. 122-160 
(Columbus), 161-185 (Magellan), 222 -226 (Ponce de Leon) ; Mackie's 
With the Admiral of the Ocean Sea. 

10. Christopher Columbus. — The Italian mariner was 
Christopher Cokimbus, a native of Genoa. In his boy- 




hood he had studied drawing, geography, and astronomy. 
He had been a sailor on the Mediterranean. In 1440 he 
was wrecked off Cape St. Vincent and reached shore 

s 



America is Found and Named 



by aid of a plank. He made his way to Lisbon, where 
he became a map maker. There he met and married 
the daughter of an Italian navigator, who was under the 
patronage of Prince Henry the Navigator. He went to 




ClIRISrOPlIKR COLUMliLsi. 



live for a time at the home of his father-in-law, who was 
then governor of Porto Santo. There Columbus was able 
to study many old maps and charts. For years the behef 
that the world is a sphere had been growing. No one 
had yet sought to prove this by sailing westward. Just 



c:^ '^ 






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Vis ^ 

: — ^y^ 



■Sr 'i,,^^ 



^4 







4 '^ 



i-.J ^^ 



221; 



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s >&: 



21 .-. 







America is Found and Named 1 1 

when Columbus decided to do this is unknown, but it was 
probably about 1474. He had the map of ToscaneUi, 
the famous Italian geographer, and believed it was correct 
in placing the East Indies about where the West Indies 
really are. 

Columbus did not have the means to furnish and man 
the necessary fleet. He sought aid from Genoa, Portugal, 
Venice, France, and England. He had confidence and 
enthusiasm for his plan, but he had often met with ridicule 
from learned men who heard him. The king of Portugal, 
whose seamen were slowly exploring along the coast of 
Africa, sent a secret expedition westward to test the 
idea of Columbus. They returned without sighting land. 
Ten long years Columbus endured these rebuffs, and then 
he secretly left Portugal for Spain toward the end of 
1484. He had splendid devotion for his great plan, but 
he had to wait a little more than seven years longer before 
the needed help was given. He had two good friends in 
Spain. These were Marchena, the Superior of La Rabida, 
and Garcia Fernandez, the learned physician of Palos. 
These with others brought about the intercession with the 
sovereigns and finally secured success. 

11. The Great Voyage. — When Queen Isabella gave 
her approval to the plan, she became enthusiastic and re- 
mained the best friend Columbus had during the rest of 
her life. She furnished fully half the money needed for 
the voyage. Two decrees were issued, one of great help, 
the other a hindrance. The helpful decree required the 
town of Palos to furnish within ten days two caravels and 
to provide money for the pay of the crews. Palos had in- 
curred the monarch's displeasure and these boats were 
exacted as a penalty. The boats were finally furnished ; 



12 



United States History for Schools 



but the angry town officials took ten weeks instead of ten 
days to obey the decree. The harmful decree was one 
that excused from punishment at law any one who would 
join the crews. This welcome to criminals and debtors 
disgusted many honest mariners, who shunned the idea of 
sailing with such companions. At this crisis the enter- 
prise was helped by two brothers named Pinzon. They 




Famous Fleet of Columbus. 



were wealthy men and they came forward with their money 
and their influence just as both were greatly needed. 

The fleet, when completed, consisted of three vessels. 
Though but small caravels, they are probably the most 
famous vessels in the world's history. The largest caravel, 
the Santa Maria, was only sixty-five feet long and twenty 
feet in breadth. She had a small cabin, while the other 



America is Found and Named 13 

two, the Pinta and the A^iha, were open boats with high 
prows and sterns, the better to ride the waves. Cokimbus 
commanded the Santa Maria as well as the fleet. The 
captains of the other two boats were the Pinzon brothers. 

They sailed from Palos on August 3, 1492, and headed 
for the well-known Canary Islands. From there the voyage 
was in unknown waters, and it was not long before the 
sailors became anxious to turn back. All kinds of fears 
and superstitions troubled them, and at one time they 
threatened a mutiny. But the courage of Columbus was 
equal to every occasion. He held his crews to their work. 
Early on the morning of October 12 they sighted one of 
the Bahama Islands. They had found the new world. Co- 
lumbus thought he had found a part of India, and so he 
called the natives there Indians, a name that has been used 
ever since. 

Columbus said the natives could be converted to the 
holy faith by gentle means, so he gave them red caps and 
beads. They were delighted and swam out to the boats 
with parrots, balls of cotton thread, and javelins. These 
were bought with glass beads and hawk's bells, and in this 
way was begun the great trade with American Indians. 
Some of the people had bits of gold hanging from their 
ears or pierced noses. Columbus asked where they got it. 
Even in 'this search of gold he was moved by lofty ideas of 
religion. He wrote these words to the king and queen : 

" For I have before protested to your Highnesses that the 
profits of this enterprise shall be employed in the conquest 
of Jerusalem, at which your Highnesses smiled and said you 
were pleased, and had the same inclination." 

They touched at a number of islands. On Christmas 
Day they were at Hayti, which they called Hispaniola. 



14 United States History for Schools 

Here the Safita Maria was wrecked, and Columbus built 
a fort of the wreckage and left a small colony. He called 
the place La Navidad, Spanish for The Nativity, which 
we express by the word Christmas. 

Columbus with the remaining two caravels left the little 
fort in January and reached home in March, 1493. The 
king and queen heaped upon him honors, titles, and favors. 
He had certainly brought great glory to the flag of Spain. 

12. Some Effects of the Voyage. — The whole of Europe 
was greatly interested in the news that Columbus had re- 
turned from his voyage crowned with success. One of 
the first things Spain did was to seek the approval of the 
church. On May 4, 1493, Pope Alexander VI. issued his 
famous bull, or decree, approving the work of Spain. He 
divided the world by declaring that a line in the ocean 
one hundred miles west of the Azores should be the bound- 
ary. All lands found east of that line should belong to 
Portugal on account of that nation's work along the coasts 
of Africa, and all lands west of that line should belong to 
Spain on account of the discoveries by Columbus. 

Portugal was not wholly satisfied with the division, and 
in 1494, by the treaty of Tordesillas, Spain and Portugal 
agreed on a new line farther west, so that Portugal could 
claim more of the lands that might be found. France and 
England were far from satisfied with such a division and 
soon made efforts to get parts of the lands for themselves. 
Spain and Portugal, however, followed up their advantage 
with vigor. 

13. Columbus and his Followers. — The magical effect 
of the great voyage was seen in Spain when Columbus 
prepared for his second voyage. Instead of trouble in get- 
ting men for a small fleet he found a swarm of grandees 



America is Found and Named 15 

and adventurers clamoring for places in the seventeen 
vessels of his new fleet. Great piles of baggage were left 
at the docks to be plundered by the mob when the crowded 
vessels sailed away. They did not care for the loss of the 
baggage, for they felt sure of reaching Cipango and Cathay, 
where they would enrich themselves with gold and silks 
described by Marco Polo. 

They started in September, 1493, and Columbus did not 
return until June, 1496. The little colony at La Navidad 
had been destroyed by Indians, but a new one was estab- 
lished on the same island and was called Isabella, in honor 
of the queen. This became headquarters for the Spanish 
explorers. They visited numerous islands and sent part 
of the fleet home with glowing accounts of wealth soon to 
be realized. At one place, which the natives called Colba 
and which we now call Cuba, Columbus had eighty of his 
men take an oath that they could walk on dry land from 
that place through India to Spain. But the promise of 
gold was not fulfilled, and the great admiral heard that 
evil reports had been sent home about him, so he sailed 
back to Spain in the Nina. 

His third voyage was disheartening. Columbus lost con- 
trol of affairs and finally was sent home in chains as a 
prisoner. The nation was aroused and some of his honors 
were restored. He made his fourth and last voyage to 
find the waterway that he was sure would lead to Cathay 
from the lands he had seen. In this, of course, he was 
disappointed. He arrived home in November, 1504. A 
few days after his return, his best friend. Queen Isabella, 
died, and Columbus failed to get his properties restored to 
him. He died in 1506, still cherishing the belief that he 
had found the outer edges of Cathay. 



i6 



United States History for Schools 



One of the most famous of those who followed in the 
track of Columbus was Americus Vespucius, who made 
four voyages, two under the flag of Spain and two under 
that of Portugal. There was a delay of two years between 
the second and third voyages of Columbus, and during that 

time Vespucius made his 
first voyage, starting in 
1497. Like Columbus, 
he explored among the 
islands and along the 
northern shores of South 
America. His voyages 
for Portugal were made 
to the shores of Brazil. 
14. John Cabot and 
his Son. — Columbus 
was born in Genoa, Ves- 
pucius in Florence, and 
John Cabot was granted 
citizenship in Venice 
(1476), though his exact 
birthplace is unknown. 
Italy can well be proud 
of having furnished to the world these three great dis- 
coverers. Cabot had become a subject of England, resid- 
ing at Bristol, when (1497) King Henry issued a decree 
authorizing him to search for islands or provinces in the 
eastern, western, or northern seas. This shows that, though 
England was still a Catholic nation, her king was not will- 
ing to abide by the Pope's division of the new lands 
between Spain and Portugal. Between May and August 
of 1497 Cabot sailed westward, found the coast of Labra- 




Americus Vespucius. 



America is Found and Named 



17 




i8 United States History for Schools 

dor and explored its shores. The next year his son Sebas- 
tian sought a northwest passage to India. Though his 
record is now disputed, he claimed that he came to the 
region of icebergs and then worked his way southward 
along the shores probably as far as Chesapeake Bay, and 
made several landings to trade with the natives. These 
voyages were not followed up by England, but many years 
later they were made the important bases for claims to 
territory. That King Henry VII. was a stingy monarch 
is shown by his telltale account book, in which is written : 
"To him that discovered the new isle, ^ lo." 

15. The Name of America. — While Columbus and the 
other discoverers still clung to the idea that the new lands 
were parts of Asia, Vespucius wrote a letter from Lisbon 
to his friend Lorenzo de Medici in 1503. He made two 
voyages for Spain and was preparing for the second under 
the Portuguese flag. He said the lands he had visited dur- 
ing his first voyage for Portugal were new countries, and it 
was proper to call them a new world. This was a big and 
wonderful idea. The letter was printed and rapidly spread 
over Europe in many Latin and German editions. Maps 
began to show the lands as Novus Mtmdus, the Latin for 
New World. Martin Waldseemiiller, a German professor 
of geography, published a little book (1507) and a map, in 
which he said that as the three parts of the earth — 
Europe, Asia, and Africa — were named for mythical 
women, this new, fourth part should be named for the man 
who had found it and he suggested Amerige, or America. 
The idea of a new world and the name America applied 
only to the lands in the south. Those in the north were still 
deemed a part of Asia until Mercator made his famous map 
(1540), extending the name America over both continents. 



America is Found and Named 



19 



16. Balboa. — This bankrupt Spanish nobleman followed 
in the track of Columbus to retrieve his broken fortunes. 
He first visited the coast of Darien (1500) and went there 
with a colony in 1 509. After four years of trouble in the col- 
ony, he placed himself at the head of a revolt and- hearing of 
a great sea and land of gold, he marched inland. In Septem- 
ber, 1 5 1 3, he saw the great ocean, which he called the South- 
ern Sea. He took possession of the sea and all the lands it 
washed for the king of Spain. 

17. Ponce de Leon. 
— In the same year 
(15 13) the Spaniards 
made their first dis- 
covery of land that was 
afterwards to become 
a part of the United 
States. Ponce de 
Leon, seeking a 
rumored fountain of 
perpetual youth, found 
the land on Easter Sun- 
day. In honor of the 
day, the Spaniards' re- 
ligious festival of 
flowers, he called the 
place Florida. 

18. Magellan. — This Portuguese in the employ of Spain 
sailed on his famous voyage in 15 19 to find a way to India 
around the southern end of the new world. The passage 
he found between the islands and the mainland he named 
Straits of Saint Ursula and Her Eleven Thousand Virgins. 
This shows him to have been a man of piety, but later 




Fernando Magellan. 



20 



United States History for Schools 




America is Found and Named 21 



his own name was substituted and ttie world called the 
place Straits of Magellan. He found such storms that, on 
reaching smoother water in the open sea, he gave Balboa's 
Southern Sea its new name. Pacific Ocean. He dis- 
covered the Philippine Islands, but unfortunately he lost 
his life there at the hands of the natives. One of the 
officers. El Cano, took command of the survivors and 
brought them to Spain (1522). This officer was presented 
with a map of the world in the form of a globe, on which 
was inscribed: "You first sailed round me." Not only 
did this voyage prove that the earth is a sphere around 
which vessels could be sailed; it proved also that the 
sphere is a large one with two oceans and great masses 
of land lying between Europe and Asia. 

19. French Discoveries. — As early as 1500 there were 
French fishermen at work off 'the shore of Newfoundland. 
They caught fish, but they did not explore or take posses- 
sion of the land. In 1524 Verrazano, for King Francis I. 
of France, sailed to the new world and coasted from Cape 
Fear to Nova Scotia. Then ten years elapsed before 
the next French expedition came to America. In 1543 
Jacques Cartier discovered and named the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence. The next year he sailed boldly into that gulf 
on his way to China. Finding that the gulf ended in a 
river, he sailed up the river until he was stopped by 
rapids. Still believing China was just beyond, he called 
the obstruction Lachine [The China] Rapids. On the 
north bank of the river he had found a steep hill which 
he called Montreal or the Royal Mountain. He stayed 
so long at this interesting work that the ice caught his 
ship and during the long winter twenty-four of his men 
died of cold and sickness. He and the other survivors 



22 



United States History for Schools 



reached home in the spring of 1536. This voyage gave 
France her chief claim to territory in the new world. 

20. Dutch Discoveries. — At the beginning of the seven- 
teenth century the Dutch were the greatest shipowners 
and traders in the world. While PhiHp II. of Spain 




HEM:\ 111 DhiiN (iN llll. klNlR lllAl |:i;AR.S lllS NaMK. 



was making war upon them in the Netherlands, their 
merchant ships were securing rich trading posts in the 
Orient. To find a safer route to India they hired Henry 
Hudson, an Englishman, to explore for them. This 
captain with his ship Half M0071 entered what we now 
know as New York harbor in August, 1609. He sailed 
up the river that has since borne his name as far as the 
present Albany. Later the Dutch made this voyage 
the basis of their claims in America. Poor Hudson ! 
England would not allow him to resume his work for the 



America is Found and Named 23 

Dutch. He then sailed under his own country's flag and 
discovered an enormous bay, which also bears his name. 
There his crew mutinied and turned him adrift in a small 
boat. He was never heard of again. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. What do you most admire about the character of Columbus ? 

2. From what countries did he seek aid ? 

3. Why was the aid refused for so many years ? 

4. What boats had he on the first voyage ? 

5. Trace the route of that voyage on a map. 

6. Where was land first seen ? 

7. What land did he suppose he had found ? 

8. Under what flag did the Cabots sail ? 

9. Who caused the use of the name America for the new lands ? 
ID. What lured Balboa to his great discovery ? 

11. How did tlie name Florida get a place on the map ? 

12. What geographic facts did Magellan's voyage prove ? 

13. How did the Frencli get a foothold in America ? 

14. What was Hudson looking for when he found the American 
river that bears his name ? 



CHAPTER III 

EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS BY SPAIN 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 30-33 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 6-8 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 387-436. 

Home Readings. — Drake's Indian History for Young Folks ; Hart''s 
Source Reader, Vol. 1., pp. 12-25; Henty's By Right of Conquest; 
Longfellow's Hiawatha; Lummis's Spanish Pioneers; jMcMurray's 
Pioneer History Stories, Vol. L, pp. 186-211 (Cortez), Vol. U., pp. 
202-218 (De Soto), Vol. HL, 225-248 (Coronado) ; Monroe's Flamingo 
Feather; Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, and Conquest of Peru; Wal- 
lace's Fair God. 

21. Edges of American Geography. — Spain, England, 
France, and the Netherlands established more or less valid 
claims in North America through the work of their dis- 
coverers. Each nation sought and hoped to find a way to 
the lands of the Orient, rich in spices, silk, and gold. Not 
one of them knew the great size of the North American 
continent. They did not know that the St. Lawrence River 
flows from a wonderful group of large lakes instead of com- 
ing from China. One by one the other rivers that flowed 
into the Atlantic were explored to see if the Orient was not 
just a short distance away. Later, of course, they were to 
learn that those rivers flowed from a range of mountains 
which we know as the Appalachian Range. Much later they 
were to learn that far, far to the westward was another and 
much larger mass of mountains, now known as the Rocky 
Mountains, and that between those mountains lay huge 
areas, — the Ohio, Missouri, and Mississippi valleys, — all 

24 



Explorations and Settlements by Spain 25 



drained by the mighty Mississippi River into the Gulf of 
Mexico. Other brave captains were to sail along the 
Pacific shore of North America, and, while they were to 
find a number of fine harbors, not one opening would be 
found, as they fondly hoped, to lead from one ocean to the 
other. When those European nations began to plant their 
first colonies in the new world, they knew only a few edges 
of North American geography. 

22. The Native Peoples or Indians. — Before studying 
the struggles and triumphs of the European colonists it 



f «*i 





;* 'M^*" 



^^' . km 



An Indian's Hcime. 



would be well to learn what kinds of people were here be- 
fore those colonists came. Those who were most advanced 
toward real civilization lived in Mexico and Peru. They 
had wonderful gardens and practiced irrigation. They 
built roads and had large, strong houses of stone, though 



26 



United States History for Schools 



they had no iron for tools. Their history, so far as known, is 
exceedingly interesting, but they lived in other lands than 
those that became the United States. Those who lived 
north of Mexico and south of British America were divided 
into many clans and families, and these were again divided 








A Birch-bark Canoe. 



into still more numerous tribes. It is not known where 
these people came from or how long they had lived in 
America when the Europeans found them. In the Missis- 
sippi Valley many mounds have been explored in which 
have been found relics, the mute records of a people who 
may have been there ages before the Indians, or who may 
have been only the ancestors of the many scattered tribes 



Explorations and Settlements by Spain 27 



who were living on the lands at the time of the voyages of 
Columbus and his followers. 

Most of these people lived the simple lives of hunters 
and fishermen. They had no domesticated animals except 
dogs. Their only agriculture consisted of little patches of 
corn, beans, and squash. The men were hunters and war- 
riors. The squaws cut the wood, cooked the food, made 
the clothing, and performed all the other drudgery around 




Primitive Weapons of the Indians. 



the rude homes. It is clear that there had been many wars 
between the great families and even between tribes of the 
same families before the arrival of the Europeans. The 
Indian's training in the forest and in warfare produced 
some qualities that made him helpful and others that made 
him harmful to the colonists. 



28 



United States History for Schools 



He taught them how to hunt and trap the birds and 
animals for food and clothing. He often shared his slender 
store of corn with hungry neighbors, and he pointed out 
plants that were good for medicine. On the other hand, 
when angry, he knew how to creep noiselessly through the 
forest without breaking a twig so that he could spring with 
his awful war whoop on an unsuspecting enemy and strike 
him down with a tomahawk. He soon learned the use of 
guns and knives and became increasingly dangerous as he 




Picture Writing by Indians. 



saw that the colonists with their homes, farms, and fences 
meant ruin for his own life of hunting and trapping. 

The Indians were numerous enough and strong enough 
in every instance to destroy the first colonies. They did 
so in some cases, and the main reason that they failed in 
others was their lack of organized effort. Only on a few 
occasions were many Indians united under one leadership 
against the white men. It is true that the war parties 
often attacked and destroyed outlying hamlets. The 
story of the tomahawk and scalping knife is a terrible 
chapter in American annals, but if it is looked at from 
the Indian's point of view, it is also terrible that one 



Explorations and Settlements by Spain 29 

people was driven from its home and killed to make 
room for another. 

23. The Reformation. — The white men who were ex- 
ploring the edges of America and learning something of 
the native peoples there were also experiencing changes 
in themselves on account of the deeds and thoughts of 
peoples in Europe. It has already been stated that the 
invention of printing from movable type came in the midst 
of the period marked by new learning. When that learn- 
ing made men's minds more free, they began to pay at- 
tention to matters of church government. This brought 
about the Reformation. The Pope not only ruled in re- 
ligious matters, but he also had great political power and 
was often in disputes or struggles with the emperor and 
kings. In the clashes of authority over these powers it 
came about in 1409 that there were three who claimed to 
be Popes at the same time. Councils of the church restored 
order out of this chaos and earnest men within the church 
favored reforms of beliefs and practices. Some of the re- 
forms were called heresies and not a few of their advocates 
were tried and executed. The executions most often took 
the cruel form of burning at the stake. In Germany, an 
Augustinian monk named Martin Luther had shown such 
ability in distussing religious questions that he was invited 
to become professor of theology in the new university at 
Wittenberg. The custom was to post up theses for discus- 
sion, and one day Luther posted upon the door of the 
castle church ninety-five theses against one of the decrees 
from the church at Rome. This was in 15 17, between the 
discoveries made by Balboa and those made by Magellan. 

Luther had no idea that his act was to begin an epoch 
in world history. Germany was ripe for religious revolt. 



30 



United States History for Schools 



and this posting of the theses was taken as a signal. 
Efforts were made to punish Luther, but he had powerful 
friends and escaped. There had been many reformers 
before him and there were many who came after him, but 
October 31, 15 17, when the monk nailed to the church door 
his famous theses, is taken as the beginning of the great 
Reformation. The church was permanently divided. 

Many new creeds 
were developed, a 
series of wars fol- 
lowed, and the his- 
tory of Europe and 
of America was pro- 
foundly influenced. 
24. Conquest of 
Mexico. — While 
these changes were 
going on in Eu- 
rope, Spain contin- 
ued her work in 
America. When 
the Spaniards had 
made themselves 
masters of His- 
paniola, Cuba, 
Porto Rico, and 
other islands, as 
well as of the Isthmus of Panama, they used these places as 
starting points for new conquests and new colonies. Ponce 
de Leon, when he discovered Florida, was governor of 
Porto Rico. Then Governor Velasquez heard of the coast 
of Yucatan and the prospect of much gold there. He sent 




HKKNAN COKIEZ. 



Explorations and Settlements by Spain 3 1 

his lieutenant, Hernan Cortez, to conquer the place for 
him. Cortez landed near the present site of Vera Cruz, 
conquered the native tribes, burned his own ships and 
marched inland to do or die. Montezuma, ruler of the 
Aztecs, thought these white men with their wonderfully 
strange animals (horses) were gods and welcomed them 
into the capital, Tenochtitlan, now known as the City of 
Mexico. Later the people revolted, but the city was re- 
gained, and in 1522, three years from the start, the Span- 
iards were in complete possession. Cortez achieved great 
wealth and fame. Governor Velasquez felt himself cheated, 
and died, it is said, of a broken heart. Mexico became the 
center from which the Spaniards secured their greatest 
contact with lands that later became parts of the United 
States. 

25. California Named. — Soon after Balboa discovered 
the Southern Sea, a Spanish novelist wrote a sort of Robin- 
son Crusoe story about an imaginary island, which he called 
California. When Cortez sent out from Mexico some ex- 
plorers to find new lands, one of his captains reported the 
finding of land which Cortez declared must be that island 
of California, and he so named it. Later it was found that 
it was not an island, but a peninsula. Still the name re- 
mained. By 1 543 the whole of California was discovered. 
The Spaniards were slow in planting colonies on those 
northern shores of the Pacific, as they were negligent of 
the northern Atlantic shores. One reason for this was 
that the court astrologer, in his mistaken wisdom, had told 
the Spanish king that gold could be found only in the 
tropics and it was foolish to seek it elsewhere. - 

26. From Florida to Mexico. — After Ponce de Leon 
had lost his life in Florida, Panfilo de Narvaez led a well- 



32 United States History for Schools 

equipped expedition to that coast (1528). The Indians 
led them farther and farther with tales of gold just beyond. 
The remnant of the party, coming back to the coast, used 
their stirrups and swords to make a little forge, and finally 
built some crude boats. In these they sailed for Cuba. 
They missed the way and all were lost but four men. 
Cabeza de Vaca and three companions escaped on the shore 
of Texas. They were captured by Indians, separated, and 
taken as slaves into the interior. Later they came together 
on the coast, escaped from the Indians, and wandered into 
Mexico, where they met other Spaniards and were thus 
rescued after their most remarkable adventures. 

27. Great Expedition of Coronado. — Rumors had reached 
Mexico of seven rich cities to the north named Cibola. 
De Vaca and his companions confirmed these reports, and 
in 1540 Coronado started north well furnished with men, 
horses, and supplies. The Seven Cities of Cibola i)roved 
to be only the stone dwellings of the Zuni Indians. While 
they had corn, pottery, and interesting relics, they had no 
gold or silver. The dream of wealth vanished, but the 
travelers found the Grand Canon of the Colorado and 
explored probably as far as the present state of Kansas. 
Most of the men perished, and the horses lost on the prairies 
were probably the beginning of the bands of wild horses 
from which the Indians got their first numbers of those 
useful animals. 

28. Discovery of the Mississippi. — While the four sur- 
vivors of the Narvaez party were escaping from the Indians 
and wandering toward Mexico, another army of men was 
preparing to land on the treacherous shores of Florida. 
Ferdinand de Soto gathered six hundred men and he had 
for this trip two hundred horses. Among other ample 



Explorations and Settlements by Spain 23 

supplies he took a drove of live hogs to be killed, as needed, 
for fresh meat. They landed at Tampa Bay in 1539. 
They all expected to become rich in a short time, but in 
this they were to be disappointed like the others who had 
sought wealth in the same region. They were strong 
enough in numbers and equipment to march as they 
pleased through the Indian country, and there were many 
occasions that tested their courage. In spite of their 
strength and bravery this band of Spaniards left a most 
miserable record of downright cruelty toward the Indians, 
whom they enslaved and tortured. 

Three eventful years were spent in the wilderness. 
They marched through Florida and Georgia, then through 
the whole length of Alabama to Mobile Bay, then diago- 
nally through Mississippi, when, in the spring of 1541, 
they came in sight of the greatest river of the earth. They 
were the first civilized men to behold the Mississippi River 
in all its grandeur. They crossed into Arkansas and 
swept around into Louisiana, coming back to the Missis- 
sippi near the mouth of the Red River. Then in May, 
1542, De Soto died and was buried in the river whose dis- 
covery has made his name immortal. The survivors made 
their way down the stream in little boats to the friendly 
coast of Mexico. When rescued, there were less than 
half of the original proud army. These were sick and 
starved, unable to raise the battered swords to which some 
of them still clung. 

29. First Settlement in the United States. — Florida, in 
spite of the early failures there, was to be the scene of 
the first settlement of the Spanish pioneers. But that first 
city was not to be planted without further bloodshed. 
In France those who accepted the new creeds of the 
u 



34 United States History for Schools 



Reformation were called Huguenots, which was at first a 
term of reproach. They were content with quiet enjoy- 
ment of their simple prayers and hymns until 1555, when 
the first Protestant church was estabhshed in Paris. Other 
churches quickly multiplied, and soon designing nobles 
got control of the organization and began to use it for politi- 
cal purposes. Civil war broke out (1562) and lasted for 
more than thirty years. 

At the outbreak of that civil war Admiral Coligny de- 
termined to provide a home in America for the Huguenots. 
He sent Jean Ribault with thirty men, who (1562) built a 
log fort at the site of Port Royal, South Carolina. They 
soon became discouraged and homesick, and started home 
in a crude little boat they had made of logs. They were 
picked up by a passing ship and carried to England. In 
1564 Coligny sent a larger party, who picked a place on 
St. John's River in Florida. Jean Ribault arrived with re- 
enforcements, and it looked as though the colony would 
succeed. 

But the Spaniards claimed P'lorida, and they especially 
hated to have it taken by heretics. Pedro Menendez was 
sent with a fleet to drive the French away. To the south 
of the French settlement he planted a fort and called it St. 
Augustine. Ribault had sailed away to attack the Span- 
iards, but encountered a storm and was wrecked. Menen- 
dez marched to the French fort, killed nearly all of them, 
and hung upon a tree a sign which read : " I do this not 
to Frenchmen, but to Lutherans." Ribault's shipwrecked 
men were then found and killed, a few being spared for 
slavery in the Spanish galleys. 

A French Catholic, De Gourgues, could not endure this 
outrage to his countrymen, so he sought revenge. He 



Explorations and Settlements by Spain 35 



sailed to the old French fort, where he found Spanish sol- 
diers as a garrison. These he hanged to a tree and over 
their heads put this sign : " I do this, not as to Spaniards, 
but as to assassins." Not feeling strong enough to attack 
the fort at St. Augustine, he sailed away and left the Span- 




Sr. AuiHsuM., (ii.nKsi Ci rv in tiik UN'riKH Statks. 

iards in charge of Florida. St. Augustine, founded in 
1565, is the oldest city in the United States. It was the 
result of terrible tragedy. The second city in the United 
States was also of Spanish origin, but its beginning was 
much more peaceful. It was a mission for the conversion 
of Indians in New Mexico and was called Santa Fe, or 
Holy Faith. It was founded much later (1605). 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. When the first colonies were planted, what did the European na- 
tions know of American geography ? 

2. What Indians were most advanced toward civilization? how did 
most of the Indians live? how did they behave toward the white 
men, as friends and as enemies ? 



^6 United States History for Schools 

3. How did the Reformation influence American history ? 

4. Why was Cortez able to conquer Mexico with such a small band 
of followers ? 

5. How did California receive that name ? 

6. Trace on a map the wanderings of De Vaca and his three 
companions. 

7. What did Coionado seek on his expedition? what did he find ? 

8. Trace on a map De Soto's route of travel. 

g. How was the first settlement of Europeans planted in what later 
became the United States ? 



CHAPTER IV 

ENGLAND SECURES VIRGINIA 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 40-44 ; Harfs Source 
Book, pp. 9-15 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 460-464. 

Home Readings. — Barne's Drake and his Yeomen ; Cooke's Stories 
of the Old Dominion ; Eggleston's Pocahontas and Powhatan ; Hart's 
Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 25-31 ; Henty's Under Drake's Flag ; Long- 
fellow's Sir Humphrey Gilbert ; McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, 
Vol. I., pp. 47-67 (Raleigh), 68-102 (John Smith), 103-107 (Popham's 
Settlement), 108-121 (New England Named), Vol. III., pp. 201-224 
(Francis Drake) ; Scott's Kenilworth. 

30. England breaks a Partnership with Spain. — Like 
all other nations of Europe, England was deeply affected 
by the Reformation. Henry VHI. (1509 to 1547) went to 
the defense of the church and wrote a book against Luther. 
For this the Pope granted him the title " Defender of the 
Faith," used ever since by British sovereigns. But King 
Henry afterwards broke from the church in political 
matters which later tended to bring about a change in faith 
as well. His son, Edward VL, was a Protestant king 
(1547 to 1553). This king was succeeded by his sister, 
Queen Mary. She was not only a Catholic, but she became 
the wife of King Philip H. of Spain, one of the strongest 
Catholic monarchs of his day. The union of Spain and 
England through this marriage was ended (1558) by the 
death of Queen Mary. Great efforts had been made to 

37 



38 United States History for Schools 

stamp out heresy. Queen Elizabeth came to the throne as 
successor to her sister and ruled forty-five years (1558 to 
1603) as a Protestant queen. 




()l 1 I N 1:1 1/ \BETH. 



King Philip tried his best to win Queen Elizabeth for 
his wife, but she steadily refused him and managed to keep 
peace between Spain and England for thirty years. It 



England secures Virginia 



39 



was not always easy to keep the peace. British seamen 
were becoming bold plunderers of the Spanish plate fleets. 
Those vessels returning from America loaded with gold and 
silver that had been wruna; from the natives of Mexico and 




AuTouRAPii OF Queen Elizabeth. 

Peru were called plate fleets. They were rich prizes for 
the plunderers. 

31. Sir Francis Drake. — This most famous of sea rovers 
in the time of Elizabeth was sometimes called the Sea King 
of Dover. In 1477 he started on what turned out to be 
the first trip around the world under the flag of England. 
The fleet at first consisted of five vessels, but when Cape 
Horn was rounded and the Pacific Ocean reached, all had 
deserted or were wrecked but one, — the Golden Hind, — 
which Drake himself commanded. This vessel he loaded 
down with gold and silver which he took from helpless 
Spanish vessels which he encountered. He sailed along 
the American coasts as far as Oregon and repaired his 
vessel in a bay of California. He called the coast Nova 
Albion. He sailed home by way of the Cape of Good 



40 



United States History for Schools 



Hope and was then a famous and wealthy man. Queen 
Elizabeth knighted him for his great achievement. 

England now had claims, by right of discovery, on both 
coasts of America, but she had no settlement on either 
coast. The work of Drake, and of Frobisher and Davis, 




Sir Francis Drake. 

who sought a northwest passage through America, stirred 
up much interest in the new world. 

32. Raleigh attempts a Settlement. — Queen Elizabeth 
shared the awakened interest in America and granted a 
charter to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, allowing him to trade and 
make settlements in the new lands. His voyages failed, 
and in one of them (1583) he and all his crew were lost. 
His rights fell to his half brother. Sir Walter Raleigh, 
famous as a courtier and as a brilliant man in that time of 
great men. He sent two ships (1584), and when they 
returned, the captains declared the country they had visited 
was beautiful and rich. It was named Virginia in honor of 
the virgin life of the queen. 

In 1585 he sent out a colony of one hundred. They 
began work on Roanoke Island, but soon became discour- 



England secures Virginia 



41 



aged, and when Sir Francis Drake anchored there, they 
persuaded him to take them home. Raleigh's money was 
giving out, but he got help from friends, and sent another 
colony, which started for Chesapeake Bay, but landed, as 
the others had done, on Roanoke Island. Here was born 
Virginia Dare, the first white child born in the United 
States. Gover- 
nor John White 
went back to 
England for aid, 
but when he 
returned to Ro- 
anoke Island 
(1590), not a 
vestige of the 
colony could be 
found. This 
was, indeed, a 
dreary end of 
Raleigh's brave 
and determined 
efforts. There 
were others who 
sailed to Amer- 
ica and traded 
with Indians, 
but the first English colonies were to be planted by com- 
panies rather than individuals. In the meantime England 
was facing danger at home. 

33. The Invincible Armada. — Elizabeth was ruling as 
a Protestant queen, which fact was, of course, hateful to 
Philip II. of Spain, whose wife had been the Catholic 




Sir Walter Raleigh. 



42 United States History for Schools ' 

queen of England. And there were other English things 
that were hateful to Philip. When his father, Charles V., 
the mightiest sovereign of his times, grew weary of his 
cares and retired to a monastery (1556), he gave to his 
brother Ferdinand the title of emperor and the crown of 
Austria, and to his son Philip he left the crown of Spain 
and the Netherlands. Charles had been a powerful em- 
peror, but after his day the title of emperor was almost an 
empty one. Philip II. exercised real power as a king. In 
fact, he was the most powerful Catholic king of the six- 
teenth century. He used the wealth from America and 
Cathay to enforce that power. When the English sea 
rovers plundered his ships, it interfered with his plans, and, 
of course, he hated that. One of his plans was the stamp- 
ing out of heresy and the heretics in the Netherlands, 
The northern provinces (now Holland) were Protestant, 
and there Philip maintained a reign of terror (1567 to 1573). 
Eighteen thousand persons were tried by military tribunals 
and condemned to death. In 1579 the Union of Utrecht 
proclaimed the independence of the seven northern prov- 
inces of the Netherlands, but it took twenty years to secure 
recognition of that independence. During the years of 
hardest struggle the Protestant powers in England insisted 
on sending help to the brave and hard-pressed neighbors 
in the Netherlands. Philip hated this more than any of 
the other offenses of England. When Elizabeth refused 
to marry him, Philip supported the claims of Mary Stuart, 
Catholic claimant to the throne of England. Mary was 
queen of Scotland. She was also the widow of King 
Francis II. of France. While the religious contest was 
apparent in this case, it also became a political contest as 
a menace to Elizabeth's crown, and she finally consented 
to have Queen Mary beheaded (1587). 



England secures Virginia 43 

The execution of Queen Mary and the aid sent to the 
Netherlands were the pretexts on which King Philip de- 
clared war on England. He prepared a fleet so strong 
that it was called the Invincible Armada. While the ships 
were being built, Sir Francis Drake drew near a Spanish 
port, and setting one of his own ships on fire, sent her blaz- 
ing into the midst of the new Spanish ships. By this act 
it was said that Drake had " singed the beard of the Spanish 
king." When the great fleet sailed for England (1588), 
the English captains in smaller boats but with superb sea- 
manship gave a fine exhibition of their valor. A storm 
sent many of the Spanish ships to wreck on the islands. 
The rest crept back to Spain and the king dismissed the 
subject of the defeat by saying to the leader : " I did not 
send you to combat the elements." 

34. Gosnold's Colony. — England was now stronger than 
ever. The merchants were organizing companies for com- 
merce in different parts of the world. Soon they were 
to establish the first permanent English colonies in Amer- 
ica. Before they did so, one more effort was made on the 
old plan. Bartholomew Gosnold in 1602 landed at a place 
called Cape Cod, from the number of codfish found there. 
South of that cape on Chuttyhunk Island, in the mouth of 
Buzzard's Bay, he built the first house in Massachusetts. 
The settlers cut logs for a cargo and also dug quantities of 
sassafras roots to be sold as medicine in England. After 
all this work, the colonists were tired and sailed back home. 
The expedition failed to found a colony, but the captain 
had sailed directly from England without taking the longer 
route to the West Indies. It was thus helpful as the 
pioneer of a shorter way from England to America. 

35. London and Plymouth Companies.— While England 



44 United States History for Schools 



was becoming stronger as a nation, conditions arose that 
produced great distress at home. Disbanded soldiers re- 
turned by thousands from the European wars. There was 
little work for them to do. Hundreds of farms were 
changed to sheep pastures, as profits in wool excelled those 
from other crops. This increased the number of unemployed 
by depriving the farm hands of work. One man or boy 
could shepherd a flock over lands where many had worked 
tilling the ground. At such a time it was natural to look 
on America as a land of promise. Two companies of 
merchants were formed, one in London and one in Plymouth 
in 1606. They obtained a charter from King James, who 
had come to the throne on the death of Queen Elizabeth 
(1603). It was evident that the king and these companies 
were determined to plant English settlements in the new 
world. The shores claimed to have been visited by the 
Cabots more than a hundred years before were divided 
between these two companies. The London Company 
could colonize between Cape Fear and the Potomac, the 
Plymouth Company between Nova Scotia and Long Island, 
while the strip from Long Island to the Potomac was 
overlapped in the charter, thus being construed to be open 
to both companies. The original charter allowed the 
companies to establish settlements within those bounds 
and for one hundred miles inland from the shore. One 
fifth of all gold and silver found was to go to the king. 
The settlers were required to place all the product of their 
labor in a common warehouse for the benefit of the whole 
colony. The king was evidently anxious to retain as 
much control as possible, so it was arranged that the govern- 
ing council should remain in England. This council could 
appoint another council to remain in America. The coun- 



England secures Virginia 



45 



cil in America could elect its own president, but the settlers 

themselves were to have no voice in their own government, 

36. Jamestown. — The first colony sailed in 1607 under 

the management of the London Company. There were 




Ruins ok Jame,stown. 



no women or children in the party, and it might be said 
there were few real settlers among the one hundred and 
five men. They were mostly gentlemen and adventurers 
who were lured by the hope of securing abundant wealth 
in a short time. That they little knew the serious nature 
of their undertaking is seen from their quarrels while cross- 
ing the sea. They went so far as to imprison John Smith 



46 



United States History for Schools 



on shipboard, and events later proved that he was the most 
sensible man of them all. It was May, 1607, when they 
sailed into Chesapeake Bay and up a river they called James, 
in honor of the king. On a low peninsula, thirty-five 
miles above the mouth of the river, they landed and called 
their new home Jamestown, also in honor of the king. The 
life of Englishmen in America had begun. It looked, how- 
ever, as though this colony would fail as the others had. 
The adventurers found no gold, though they spent most of 
their time searching for it. Those who knew how to work 
had no mind for it. They roamed about, hoping to find 
the rivers whose sands were gold. The first president of 
the branch council in America could not control affairs and 

the second was also a failure. 

Captain Newport, on landing 
the settlers, had gone back to 
England. In 1608 he returned 
with more settlers, and John 
Smith was chosen president of 
the council. 

37. John Smith. — The man 
who had been imprisoned was 
made leader of the colony. He 
laid down one simple rule: " He 
that will not work shall not eat." 
Smith knew what kind of work 
was needed. There were gar- 
dens and fields to cultivate, 
cabins to build, fishing and hunting to be done, and trading 
with the Indians for food. It was a blunt truth he sent 
to the council in England when he wrote that thirty gar- 
deners and diggers-up of trees' roots would be worth a 




Captain John Smith. 



England secures Virginia 47 

thousand of such men as were then in the colony. Smith 
thus saved the colony at a critical time, and he probably 
saved the settlers from Indian attacks. He had from the 
first made friends with the natives and, though captured 
and carried to Chief Powhatan, he managed to win his 
freedom. He became interested in the chief's daughter 
Pocahontas, who became the friend of the white settlers, 
one of whom, John Rolfe, she married. She visited Eng- 
land and was lavishly entertained there. To this day there 
are many Americans who are proud of tracing their kinship 
back to Pocahontas. 

The council did not send the kind of men that Smith 
needed, and he did his best to keep those that were sent 
engaged on tasks that were necessary but which they by 
no means relished. It was a misfortune to the colony 
when it lost its stern ruler. Smith was injured by the 
explosion of a bag of gunpowder, and returned to England. 

38. Starvation.^ — The winter of 1609-16 10, after Smith 
had left, was a severe test for Jamestown. The Indians be- 
came troublesome and began to cut off the settlers. Not 
enough cabins had been built for shelter, and death from 
disease and exposure resulted. By spring the colony had 
dwindled from five hundred to only sixty. It is no wonder 
that this sorry remnant started down the river to sail for 
homes in England. Before leaving the river they were 
met by Lord Delaware, the new governor, who had come 
with recruits and supplies. All turned back to Jamestown 
with renewed courage. 

39. New England Named. — The same year that Jamestown 
was settled (1607) George Popham took a colony of one 
hundred and twenty settlers to the northern portion of the 
big grants, but the winter at the mouth of the Kennebec 



48 



United States History for Schools 



I yt- 






51 S^:- 



o* 



O^ 4:' = 



1-^ t- 



3 f ;'.,.;,' 

1 ll<=>*'-' 



<:>» 






2 ,, lifs- 



EO*&'*W' 



i'^- 
-'^^i. 



■9 



Oil I IK, 



^ i 



5of3 






England secures Virginia 49 

was so severe that the attempt to colonize there was given 
up. When John Smith recovered from his accident, he 
could not get employment from the London Company 
because he had sent home no gold or profits from James- 
town. He then persuaded some merchants to fit him out 
for a sailing venture to America. He examined the coast 
from Penobscot to Cape Cod, made a map of it, and called 
the region New England. Before this newly mapped 
region of New England received its first enduring colony, 
people other than Englishmen had made settlements to the 
northward. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. How did Queen Elizabeth keep peace with Spain ? 

2. Name some of the results of Drake's voyage around the globe. 

3. Why did Raleigh's attempts at settlement fail ? 

4. Why did Spain's Invincible Armada fail? 

5. Gosnold's colony failed ; what item of success came of it? 

6. Trace on a map the areas granted the London and Plymouth 
companies. 

7. What reason would you assign for Jamestown's success where 
other colonies had failed ? 

8. What do you count the greater services rendered by Captain 
John Smith ? 



CHAPTER V 



SETTLEMENT OF NEW FRANCE AND NEW 
NETHERLAND 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 86-94; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 14-17- 

Home Readings. — Irving's Knickerbocker History of New York ; Mc- 
Murry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. I., pp. 1-34 (Champlain), 35-46 
(Hudson) ; Parkman's Pioneers of France in the New World. 

40. Settlement of New France. — After Cartier had dis- 
covered the St. Lawrence (§19), he obtained from the king 
of France a charter to make a settlement there (1541). 

Associated with him was 
Sieur de Roberval, After 
each of the leaders had 
spent a winter in that cold 
country, their attempts at 
colonization were aban- 
doned. The French civil 
war, already referred to 
(§ 29), was ended by the 
elevation of Henry of 
Navarre to the throne as 
King Henry IV. It was 
under this wise ruler that 
New France, or Canada, was first settled. An attempt was 
made at Port Royal, now Annapolis, Nova Scotia. The 
king had granted (1605) a large area called Acadia to the 

50 




Samuel de Champlain. 



Settlement of New France and New Netherland 51 

Sieur de Monts, but the attempt to settle a colony in that 
year failed, and not until 1610 was the effort successful. In 
the meantime Samuel de Champlain, an associate of De 
Monts, had sailed up the St. Lawrence River in 1608 and 
settled a colony at Quebec. This was the first real settle- 
ment, and Champlain is loved and honored as the father of 
New France. 

41. The French made Indian Enemies. ^ None of the 
pioneers in America knew half as well as the French how 
to make friends and helpers of the Indians, but at the very 
beginning of their settlements they made one blunder in 
this respect, which endured to hurt them over and over 
again during their whole experience in New France. That 
blunder was in making enemies of the Iroquois. Those 
were the most crafty and warlike Indians in the United 
States. They occupied both banks of the Hudson, along 
the St. Lawrence from Montreal and along the shores of 
Lakes Ontario and Erie, a huge wedge-shaped territory 
embracing all of New York and parts of northern Pennsyl- 
vania and northeastern Ohio. They were called the Five 
Nations because as a group they embraced the Mohawks, 
Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. Later their 
kinsmen, Tuscaroras, joined them from the south, and they 
were called the Six Nations. 

The first Indians encountered by Champlain were Hu- 
rons. They became his friends and, being at war with the 
Iroquois, persuaded him to help them in battle. Going 
southward for that purpose, Champlain discovered the 
beautiful lake that has since borne his name. The battle 
took place about where Fort Ticonderoga was afterwards 
built. Champlain himself wrote a fine account of the con- 
flict of July 29, 1609. The Iroquois went on shore and 



52 United States History for Schools 




Settlement of New France and New Netherland ^^ 

cut down trees for a rude fort. The French and the Hu- 
rons tied their canoes together and spent the night on the 
water. The next morning the brave Iroquois, with their 
bows and arrows, their spears and armor of skins and 
strips of wood, boldly faced for the first time men with 
guns. Two of their chiefs fell from Champlain's first shot, 
and when others fell on all sides, they saw that their arrows 
were no match for those wonderful sticks that threw out 
fire and death. They fled in dismay and were savagely 
pursued through the woods, many being killed and others 
taken prisoners. Champlain says his Indians feasted and 
danced, and then: "After going some eight leagues, 
towards evening they took one of the prisoners, to whom 
they made a harangue enumerating the cruelties which he 
and his men had already practiced towards them without 
any mercy, and that in like manner, he ought to make up 
his mind to receive as much. They commanded him to 
sing, if he had courage, which he did ; but it was a very 
sad song." 

This was the first conflict between the French and the 
Iroquois, but its memory sank deep in the minds of the 
Indians. They became friendly with the Dutch and later 
with the English, but when the French sought to approach 
the Hudson or the Ohio, they always had to fight the 
Iroquois. 

42. The Fur Trade. — The French found no gold in 
their new lands, but they did find furs. In Europe there 
has always been a good market for furs at high prices. 
The Indians were by nature expert trappers and hunters. 
They were eager to trade furs for guns, knives, hatchets, 
blankets, and for the hawk's bells, beads, and red caps that 
Columbus had first introduced into American trade. At 



54 



United States History for Schools 



first the Indians brought their furs to the settlements, but 
later the white men would take trading goods and go out 
into the wild lands to meet the Indians in their hunting 
grounds. These men became known as Coureurs de Bois, 
or Rangers of the Woods. Many of them took Indian 
squaws for wives. They sought only furs, a harvest of 
the wilderness, and thus did not dis- 
turb the Indian ways of life. It is no 
wonder that they got along better 
than others with the wild men. 

43. Indian Missions. — King 
Henry IV. of France had issued the 
Edict of Nantes (1598), by which it 
was arranged that Catholics and Prot- 
estants could worship at home with- 
out persecution. So when New 
France was settled, the Huguenots 
did not have to seek freedom to wor- 
ship there. But the Catholic priests 
were anxious to convert the Indians. 
For this purpose they risked their 
lives with a courage and a spirit of 
self-sacrifice that have never been 
surpassed. The annals are full of 
their heroic achievements. The " Black Gowns " needed 
only a cabin for home and church. They did not disturb, 
in fact they helped, the wild fur trade. Often the mission- 
aries led the way for the Rangers of the Woods. Most 
active among these priests were the Jesuits. It has been 
said of New France : " Not a mountain was climbed, not a 
lake discovered, not a river was turned but a Jesuit led the 
way." 




French Missionary 
THE Indians. 



Settlement of New France and New Netherland ^^ 

44. Settlement of New Netherland. — While the north- 
ern pioneers of the Netherlands were struggling against 
Philip II. of Spain for their independence, they were 
fortunate in having a strong and noble leader in William 
of Orange. He was so successful that a price was put 
upon his head. He was assassinated in 1584 and was 
succeeded by his son Prince Maurice in the office of Stadt- 
holder. Under young Maurice and his strong ministers 
great progress was made. The Dutch East India Com- 
pany was organized, and in 1609 the Hudson River was 
discovered. At that time, as already stated (§ 20), the 
Dutch were the greatest traders in the world. When 
Hudson reported the beauty of the river, the fertility of 
the soil, the abundant forests, and especially the friends 
he had made with the Indians who were anxious to trade 
furs, the merchants of Amsterdam were prompt to act. 
The next year after the discovery of the river they 
planted a little trading post on Manhattan Island (1610). 
The neighboring coasts were explored and mapped, and 
the region was called New Netherland. 

Other trading posts were established and thrived. For 
a time one was maintained near the present site of Phila- 
delphia. In 1623 the Dutch went up the Hudson River 
and established a fort which they called Fort Orange, in 
honor of the hero of their wars. Later the English 
changed that name to Albany. Of all these posts, the 
one on Manhattan Island succeeded best. As it grew 
into a village, it received the name of New Amsterdam. 

45. The Indians sell Manhattan Island. — Hudson be- 
gan the friendship with the Indians, which the traders 
carefully cultivated. The trade gave promise of great 
results, so the Dutch formed a company called the West 



^6 United States History for Schools 

India Company to control it. The first governor sent 
over was Peter Minuit, who promptly completed in 1626 
a famous bargain with the friendly Indians. He bought 
Manhattan Island, where now stands the city of New 
York. It is hard for one living in the present time to 
believe that the Dutch gave and the Indians gladly 
accepted as the price some goods and trinkets valued 
at about twenty-four dollars of our money. It was 
scarcely one sixth of a cent an acre for what is now the 
most valuable real estate in America. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. When and by whom was the first settlement made in New 
France ? 

2. Why was Champlain's first Indian battle unfortunate to the 
interests of France in America ? 

3. Why did the French succeed in trade with the Indians ? 

4. How were the missionaries helpful to French trade ? 

5. What attracted the Dutch to America ? 

6. Was the purchase of Manhattan Island from the Indians a fair 
bargain ? 



CHAPTER VI 

FIRST NEW ENGLAND COLONY AND NEW SWEDEN 

References.- — Ashley's American History, pp. 44-49; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 18-32 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 465-483. 

Home Readings. — Austin's Standish of Standish ; Dix's Soldier 
Rigdale ; Fiske's Beginning of New England ; Hart's Source Reader, 
Vol. I., pp. 133-136; Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair; Longfellow's 
Courtship of Myles Standish; Webster's Plymouth Oration. 

46. The First New England Settlers were Pilgrims. — 

While the Dutch were planting trading posts in New 
Netherland (§ 44), Captain John Smith was mapping 
and naming New England (§ 39). Before the Dutch had 
gone so far as to establish Fort Orange or to purchase 
Manhattan Island from the Indians, the Pilgrims had 
planted the first successful colony in New England. 

For many reasons this was the most interesting of all 
the first colonies. Its members were exiles for conscience' 
sake. As such they were not to be frightened by savage 
Indians or by cold winters. 

In England the church begun by King Henry VIII. 
became known as the Protestant Episcopal Church. It 
has always been so closely related to the government that 
it is often called the Established Church of England. By 
the beginning of the seventeenth century the church 
was so strong and was deemed so essential that the gov- 
ernment required every one to attend the services and 
to support the church by paying taxes levied for that 
purpose. There were these three classes of worthy citi- 

.57 



58 United States History for Schools 

zens who objected : first, the Catholics, who were opposed 
to attending and supporting a church in which they did 
not beheve ; second, the Puritans, who got that name 
because they beheved in the church but continually sought 
to purify many of the ceremonies ; third, the Separatists, 
who despaired of purifying the ceremonies and separated 
from the church so as to worship in the manner they 
thought best. 

Those who ruled the church were cruel. They punished, 
persecuted, and sometimes hanged those who disobeyed 
the church rules and laws. The Separatists suffered these 
severe penalties, and when one group fled to Holland and 
then to America, seeking a place to worship as their con- 
sciences dictated, they obtained the name of Pilgrims. 

47. Migration to Holland. — The Dutch were fighting so 
vigorously for freedom of worship that they allowed per- 
fect freedom to others of Protestant faith though of differ- 
ent creed. Knowing this, one congregation of English 
Separatists in the village of Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire, 
decided to avoid further persecution at home by moving to 
Holland. They settled (1607) near Leyden, where for a 
dozen years they enjoyed comfort and freedom. At the 
end of that dozen years they decided to move to America. 
There were two main reasons for that decision. In the 
first place, they knew if they remained permanently in 
Holland, their children would learn the Dutch language and 
later would marry into Dutch families and, in time, all 
would become more Dutch than English. Being proud of 
their own language, their own history, and their own race, 
they preferred to go to new and wild lands owned by Eng- 
land and there rear families according to ideas approved 
by Pilgrims. The second reason was that Europe was 



First New England Colony and New Sweden 59 

entering on another religious war, and their quiet homes 
were likely to be disturbed by the awful struggles and 
pillage of warfare. That war was destined to be the worst 
of all the religious wars, and it was to endure so long that 
in history it was to be known as the Thirty Years' War, 

48. Pilgrims start for America. — Though the decision 
to go to America was reached, it was no easy matter to 




'rill-, I'AMiMS MayJio2ver. 

complete arrangements for the start. The only English 
settlement in America was at Jamestown. These Sep- 
aratists would not be welcome there on account of their 
religion. At one time they planned to go to the Hudson 
River and settle among the Dutch, but that plan was given 
up. They decided to get a foothold near the fiudson. 



6o United States History for Schools 

James I. would not give them a charter, but he agreed not 
to interfere with them. Failing to get a charter, permis- 
sion was obtained from the London Company to settle on 
their grant in America. The Pilgrims were poor and had 
no money to hire the necessary vessels or to buy supplies. 
A company of merchants agreed to supply these essentials, 
but on rather hard terms. Every man of the colony was 
to work six days each week, and at the end of seven years 
all the product of the labor was to be divided equally be- 
tween the company and the colony. 

The pastor of this congregation was John Robinson. 
He was a fine character, greatly loved by his people. As 
it was impossible for the entire congregation to go on the 
first trip, he decided to remain with those left in Holland. 
So it was Pastor Robinson, who bade the little vessel Speed- 
zvell farewell as she sailed from Delftshaven, Holland, in 
July, 1620. She was bound for Southampton, England, 
where she was to join the Mayflozver. Both vessels started 
early in August with about one hundred and twenty pas- 
sengers. 

They had not gone far when the Spcedivell began leak- 
ing so badly that they put back to Plymouth for repairs. 
This happened a second time and then some of the pas- 
sengers were transferred from the Speedwell to the May- 
flower, and that famous little vessel started alone on the 
memorable voyage, leaving Plymouth September 12, 1620. 
She carried one hundred passengers. 

49. Landing of the Pilgrims. — The voyage was rough 
and the storms drove them out of their course. They 
started for lands near the Hudson, but they first sighted 
the shore at Cape Cod. Their permission was from 
the London Company to settle in what was then known 



First New England Colony and New Sweden 6i 

as Northern Virginia. Cape Cod was in New England 
and belonged to the Plymouth Company. The Pil- 
grims decided to settle there even if they did not have 
permission. They anchored in Provincetown harbor, 
inside of Cape Cod and then explored for a convenient 
landing. Strangely enough they selected the place that 




Pil(;rims Landing at Plymouth. 

Captain John Smith had named Plymouth harbor in honor 
of the very same English harbor from which the Pilgrims 
had sailed. December 21, 1620, this harbor was reached 
and the landing begun. On the beach was a granite 
bowlder, which was used in making the landing. It is still 
carefully preserved in the center of a beautiful monument. 
It is visited by thousands each year, and Plymouth Rock is 
loved as one of the important monuments in American 
history. 



62 United States History for Schools 



50. Xiie Mayflower Compact. — Before the landing was 
made, some members of the party let fall some remarks 
to the effect that, once on shore, they would do as they 
pleased. This waywardness thus voiced was disliked by 
the more sober-minded leaders and members. A compact 
or agreement was drawn up and all were required to sign it. 
This simple compact is sometimes pointed to as the first 
constitution in America. It proclaimed the settlers' loyalty 
to King James of England and bound them to enact just 
and equal laws for the general good of the colony. After 
the compact was signed, John Carver was elected as the 
first governor. 

51. Governor Bradford and Myles Standish. — Soon 
after the JMayJioivcr sailed back to England, Governor 
Carver died. In his place was elected one of the great 
characters in New England history, William Bradford. 
Some idea of the love and respect entertained for this man 
may be had from the fact that for thirty-six years following 
his first election in 1621 until his death in 1657 h^ '^^s 
continuously reelected. For five of those years he begged 
off, but during all the others he served his people in that 
office. 

Myles Standish was one of those truly great men who 
could be stern and courageous as a soldier, gentle and 
kind as a helper of the sick or needy. As captain of the 
little army he cooperated with the wise governor in pro- 
tecting the colony from Indian attacks. Governor Carver 
had made a treaty of friendship with Chief Massasoit, 
which was kept by the Indians for more than fifty years. 
Chief Canonicus of a neighboring hostile tribe sent Gover- 
nor Bradford a rude and savage message of war. It was 
a bundle of arrows tied together with the skin of a rattle- 



First New England Colony and New Sweden 6^ 



snake. Governor Bradford took the snake skin and, stuff- 
ing it full of powder and bullets, sent it back as his answer. 
The chief abandoned his idea of war at that time. 

52. The First Winter a Hard One. — At no time in the 
history of America has greater bravery been shown than 
that exhibited by the Pilgrims during the first winter. 
They had landed in the month of December. They had 
no experience in building houses of rough logs cut by 
themselves from the forest, and 
yet they began that hard work 
at once. Later they learned 
how to make such cabins warm 
by chinking the crevices with 
mud and moss, but the first one 
must have been a very poor 
shelter. They did not then 
know how to hunt the wild 
animals for fresh food and for 
furs to make warmer clothing. 
The cold, hunger, and sickness 
were terrible. Just half the 
number of that little colony 
died that first winter. In face 
of such bitter sorrow not one of 
the surviving Pilgrims returned 
to England when the A fa rj?07tii^r sa.[\ed back in April, 1621. 
They would not desert the graves of their comrades in that 
wilderness. They would succeed there or die in the effort. 
Such noble spirits richly deserved success, and the memory 
of the Pilgrim Fathers has justly become one of the most 
highly prized and most sacredly cherished of the inherit- 
ances bequeathed to this nation from the past. 




Dress of a Puritan. 



64 



United States History for Schools 



53. Independence of Plymouth. — The Pilgrims were 
independent of church officers. By electing their own 
governor and making their own laws, they were inde- 
pendent of the councils and officers in England, which was 
not true of the colony at Jamestown (§ 35). On the other 

hand, the Pilgrims had agreed to 
work every day but Sunday and 
divide the results of seven years 
of such work with the merchants 
who had furnished the money for 
the first voyages. In 1626, before 
the seven years had ended, the 
Pilgrims took their savings and 
borrowed some more money in 
luigland at high rates of interest 
and in that way bought out the 
claims of those merchants. From 
that time the settlers were free to 
build and own their houses, to till 
their own fields and to engage in 
the business of fishing or fur trad- 
ing on their own accounts. 

54. New Sweden in America. — As the settlement of 
America proceeded, all the nations in Europe became more 
and more interested. Sweden was among those ambitious 
for new colonies. In 1638 her statesmen sent out a colony 
which settled near the present site of Wilmington, Dela- 
ware. They called the place Christina, in honor of the 
queen of Sweden. They bid fair to prosper and built 
other posts, but New Sweden lasted less than twenty years. 
The Dutch in New Netherland claimed from the first that 
the lands taken belonged to them. Their protests were 




Dress of a Puritan. 



First New England Colony and New Sweden 65 

ignored until 1655, when a little Dutch army surprised the 
settlements and conquered them. It is said that in that 
little war there was much loud talking but no iighting or 
bloodshed. 

55. The Thirty Years' War in Europe. — In the seventy- 
three years, from 1565 to 1638, five nations of Europe — ■ 
Spain, France, England, the Netherlands, and Sweden — 
had secured footholds in the North American portion of 
the new world. Before taking up the study of how those 
colonies increased in number and in strength, it would be 
well to learn a little of the conditions in Europe. Those 
conditions produced many of the results which we call 
American history. 

As already stated (§ 47), the Thirty Years' War was the 
worst of the religious wars. It was brought about through 
efforts to settle the differences between Catholics and Prot- 
estants in Germany. Quarrels over church property led 
to riots and these led to war. The emperor represented 
the Catholic side. He did not have a large army, but he 
employed a Bohemian nobleman named VVallenstein, who 
agreed to supply an army without pay or expense. He 
would plunder the countries attacked. He and his army 
became a terrible scourge. They killed, burned, robbed, 
and pillaged everywhere. As they marched through North 
Germany, the Danish king tried to stop them; but was de- 
feated. Then one of the most remarkable men of his time 
appeared. This was the great Gustavus Adolphus, king 
of Sweden. He defeated Wallenstein in the battle of 
Liatzen (1632), but unfortunately the king was killed in 
the moment of victory. It was probably the greatness 
achieved by Gustavus Adolphus which caused Sweden to 
seek expansion by planting a colony in America. 

V 



66 United States History for Schools 

The emperor was gaining ground fast after the death 
of the Swedish king and would have succeeded in his war 
had it not been for an unexpected enemy. Cardinal Riche- 
lieu, the great CathoHc minister of France, feared that 
the emperor, if successful, would be a powerful enemy of 
France. So he put politics above religion and sent French 
armies to fight on the side of the Protestants. 

In 1645 commissioners met in Westphalia to arrange 
for peace. The arguments lasted for three years, but in 
1648 what is known as the Peace of Westphalia was 
signed and the Thirty Years' War was ended. That is 
one of the greatest treaties in the world's history. Since 
that treaty there have been no more religious wars. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Why are the settlers of Plymouth called Pilgrims ? 

2. Why is the Mayflmver one of the most famous of ships ? 

3. What was the nature of the Mayflower compact ? 

4. What do you admire most al)Out Governor Bradford and Myles 
Standish ? 

5. Why did not the Pilgrims leave after the first hard winter ? 

6. How did Plymouth become independent ? 

7. What impelled Sweden to get a foothold in America? how did 
she lose it ? 

8. Show why the Treaty of Westphalia was important. 



870 
1000 

1095-1277 

1295 . 

1375 • 

1450 . 

1453 • 



CHRONOLOGY 

Norsemen discover Iceland. 

Discovery of America by Leif Ericson. 

Period of the nine Crusades. 

Marco Polo's return from Cathay. 

Use of gunpowder in weapons. 

Invention of printing. 

Conquest of Constantinople by the Turks. 



First New England Colony and New Sweden 67 



[486 . 

1492 . 

'497 ■ 

[507 . 

1513 ■ 

[517 . 
[519-1521 

[524 . 

[528 . 

1534 • 

'539 • 

[540 . 

[541 . 

565 • 

'579 • 
1 584-1 590 

1588 . 

[606 . 
1607 

t6o8 . 



[620 
1626 
[638 
1648 



Dias discovered Cape of Good Hope. 

Conquest of the Moors in Spain. 

Tlie great voyage by Columbus. 

Voyage by Vespucius. 

Nortii America discovered by John Cabot. 

America received its name. 

Balboa discovered Pacific Ocean. 

Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon. 

Martin Luther posted his theses. 

Magellan's expedition encircled the globe. 

Conquest of Mexico by Cortez. 

Voyage to the new world by Verrazano for France. 

Narvaez's expedition to Florida. 

Jacques Cartier discovered Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

De Soto landed in Florida. 

Coronado's great expedition through New Mexico. 

Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto. 

St. Augustine, first city in the United States, establisiied. 

Drake called California Nova Albion. 

Raleigh's attempts to colonize America. 

Destruction of Spain's Invincible Armada. 

Formation of the London and Plymouth companies. 

Founding of Jamestown. 

Founding of Quebec by Champlain. 

Hudson discovered Hudson River for the Dutch. 

Discovery of Lake Champlain. 

Landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. 

Indians sold Manhattan Island to the Dutch. 

New Sweden begun in Delavvare. 

End of the Thirty Years' War. 



II 

Expansion of the Colonies 

CHAPTER VII 

GROWTH OF VIRGINIA 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 73-76 ; Hart's Source 
Book. pp. 33-37 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 483-492. 

Home Readings. — Cooke's Virginia; Drake's Making of Virginia 
and the Middle Colonies ; Fiske's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors ; 
Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 71-79, 149-152, 157-159; Johnston's 
To Have and To Hold. 

56. Virginia's New Charter of 1609. — The sorry rem- 
nant of the Jamestown colony after that awful winter experi- 
ence of 1609-1610 had started for England when they met 
the new governor, Lord Delaware, and turned back (§ 38). 
While they returned to the same old Jamestown cabins, 
they were really going to a new colony. The Company 
had obtained the new charter of 1609. This gave them 
much more land and increased their power. Their lands 
were to extend along the shore for four hundred miles, two 
hundred each way from Old Point Comfort, and " up into 
the land throughout from sea to sea, west and northwest." 
Nobody knew-in 1609 how far it was from sea to sea, but 
later Virginia placed great stress on that extensive grant. 
Besides the new lands the Company was allowed to send 
out a governor with ample power to rule the settleinent. 

Governor Delaware soon resigned and was succeeded by 

68 



Growth of Virginia 69 

Governor Dale. He was a stern old soldier and is some- 
times referred to as a tyrant. But he kept peace and 
order in the* community. By working instead of quarrel- 
ing and wastefully searching for gold the colony began to 
prosper. He introduced an important reform. He gave 
small pieces of land to some of the settlers and allowed 
certain days on which they could work on the little places 
for themselves. All their labor was not for the common 
storehouse as before and enterprise soon increased. 

57. Tobacco proved a " Gold Mine." — From the first 
discovery by Columbus it was known that the natives in 
this new world had a peculiar plant whose dried leaves 
they prized for smoking. Many of the explorers took 
home specimens of the plant, and the people of Europe 
were growing fond of its fumes. Though from the first 
there were sensible people who opposed its use, there 
were also many who were ready to pay good prices for 
their supplies of tobacco. At first the tobacco was ob- 
tained from the Indians, who knew where to find it growing 
wild. When the Jamestown settlers began to work their 
little fields, it was found that tobacco could be cultivated 
like cabbages. 

This made a wonderful change. Here was a crop that 
would bring surer wealth than hunting for gold mines. 
Ground was cleared for new tobacco fields and for a while 
the streets of Jamestown were planted for the same crop. 
From that time Virginia had a commerce that produced an 
increasing profit. For a long time tobacco was used for 
money. Even the preachers and teachers were paid at so 
many pounds of tobacco for a month's work. When it 
was found that wives were scarce in the settlement, ninety 
were practically bought with tobacco. That number of 



70 United States History for Schools 

young women were sent to Virginia by the London Com- 
pany. It was figured out that the fare of each one could 
be paid with one hundred and twenty pounds of tobacco. 
When the vessel arrived, the young men appeared at the 
landing with the tobacco, and each walked away with a 
young woman to the home of the clergyman for the 
wedding. 

58. Negro Slaves and Broad Plantations. — Besides giv- 
ing new life to the colony at Jamestown, the growing of 
tobacco had other far-reaching results. Labor was needed 
for the fields and for curing and packing the tobacco 
leaves. At first poor boys and girls were sent from Eng- 
land to work until they became of age. Then men were 
sent who were to work for seven years to pay for their 
passage across the ocean. These were called indentured 
servants. In August, 1619, a Dutch vessel arrived at 
Jamestown and, as the record says, "sold us twenty 
Negars." This was just the kind of cheap labor needed 
by the tobacco growers. The slave trade flourished. The 
slaves were secured on the coast of Africa at small cost, 
hundreds were crowded into a single vessel, and, though 
many died and were thrown into the ocean, great profits 
were made by the sale of the remainder in America. The 
world at that time did not see anything wrong in this 
horrid traffic in human beings. 

The other result of tobacco culture was the creation of 
broad plantations. It was found that tobacco soon ex- 
hausted the soil. So each grower sought wide acres. 
He preferred to farm on the bank of a river so he could 
have his own landing. There he could receive his goods 
and manufactured articles from Europe and pay for them 
by loading tobacco into the same vessel at the same land- 



Growth of Virginia 71 

ing. The profits he could use to buy more slaves and 
more land and to build finer mansions. This kind of life 
made rich planters, but did not help to build up large 
cities. 

59. Self-government in Virginia. — In the same year 
(16 19) when the first negroes were sold in Jamestown 
a much more glorious event occurred. Governor Yeard- 
ley, who was then in office, obeyed the orders of the 
London Company by calling for an assembly of the 
settlers. Virginia then comprised eleven settlements, 
which were called boroughs, an English term for town. 
A citizen of a borough was called a burgess. The assem- 
bly that was called was to consist of two representatives 
from each borough, and it was called the House of Bur- 
gesses. This was the first representative assembly in 
America. It was to have great influence in shaping 
political events in the new world. It was recognized by 
the people in England as a great advance toward liberty. 
The chance to own land and to grow tobacco had- insured 
the success of Virginia. Now they were to have the great 
boon of making their own laws and regulating taxes. 
In one year after this great reform the population in- 
creased from 600 to about 4000. 

The London Company was in earnest about granting 
self-government to its Virginia colony. Two years after 
the experiment was tried, on July 24, 162 1, the Company 
adopted a formal ordinance setting forth more firmly and 
in greater detail the plan of the representative govern- 
ment. This ordinance may be called the second stepping- 
stone toward the American Constitution, for it came eight 
months after that compact (§ 50) signed in the cabin of 
the Mayfloiver. 



72 United States History for Schools 

60. An Angry King and Hostile Indians. — There was 
some English politics mixed up in that granting of the germ 
of self-government to Virginia. King James I. believed 
strongly in the theory of " the divine right of kings " to 
rule as they thought best. Some members of the London 
Company were among those who opposed the arbitrary 
rule of the king in England. To help their cause they 
decided to sow seeds of greater liberty in America. All 
this angered the king. 

The Indians in Virginia had been peaceful for a number 
of years and the white men had grown a little careless 
about danger of attacks, when suddenly, on March .22, 
1622, the war whoop was sounded, and in one day three 
hundred and forty-seven men, women, and children among 
the scattered colonists were killed. The other settlers 
rallied and punished the Indians so severely that they re- 
mained quiet for a score of years. 

It was a serious blow. Many plantations were deserted 
and some settlers, panicstricken, returned to England. 
Above all, it gave a pretext to the angry king, who brought 
charges of mismanagement against the Company. In 
June, 1624, the King's Court rendered a decision declaring 
the London Company's charter " null and void," thus tak- 
ing the colony away from the Company just as it was in 
shape to realize good profits from its eighteen years of 
work and investments. Virginia was then made a royal 
colony under the direct rule of the king. James I. was 
preparing to show Virginia his plan of rule when he died 
(1625), and was succeeded by his son, King Charles I. 

61. Cavaliers and Roundheads in England and America. 
— During the twenty-four years of this new king's reign 
many exciting and interesting events took place in England 



Growth of Virginia 



73 



and America. He was even more arbitrary and stubborn 
than his father. He had so much trouble at home that he 
paid Httle attention to Virginia except in the appointment 
of governors. Governor Harvey was driven out of his 
office for offending the Virginians (1635), and Charles I. 
asserted the divine right of kings by putting him back in 
office. He soon sent a new governor, however, in the 
person of Sir William Berkeley, 
who proved a stern ruler. 
Under him only Episcopalians 
were welcome in Virginia. All 
others were banished. The 
king's arbitrary rule also af- 
fected other colonies in Amer- 
ica, for it drove Catholics and 
Puritans to seek liberty of 
worship in new lands. 

At home the king was quarrel- 
ing with his people and Parlia- 
ment. There grew up two 
parties. One was royalist and 
supported the king. They 
were called Cavaliers and wore 
fine clothes and long hair. The other party was composed 
mostly of Puritans. They supported Parliament and, be- 
cause they wore the hair cropped, were called Roundheads. 
The quarrels led to civil war in which the Roundheads were 
victorious. The king was captured and beheaded (1649). 
England became a republic, and the leader of the Round 
heads, Oliver Cromwell, was ruler with the title Lord Pro- 
tector of the Commonwealth. 

Though Cromwell was a wise and successful ruler, the 




A Cavalier in Virginia. 



74 



United States History for Schools 



Cavaliers were not comfortable in England. Many sought 
refuge in America. Virginia was the only place for them 
to go, as Virginia remained friendly to the cause of the 




From the puiiitlng by Van der Plas.s. 

OliveiI Cromweli,. 

king. Large numbers removed to that colony. They 
were educated and gentlemanly. They were warmly 
welcomed. From these Cavaliers have sprung some of the 
finest and most patriotic families of America. 



Growth of Virginia 75 

62. Cromwell's Treaty with Virginia. — Cromwell did not 
relish the idea of Virginia's branding as a traitor any one 
who justified the killing of King Charles. Nor did he 
like the idea of Cavaliers being so warmly welcomed 
there. He sent out commissioners with warships. Gover- 
nor Berkeley prepared to give them battle, but a treaty 
was arranged. Virginia got even greater liberties, for she 
could now elect her own governor and council, as well as 
members of the House of Burgesses. The gates were 
opened to both Puritan and Cavalier, and there followed a 
period of contentment and prosperity. 

63. A Blow to Liberty in Virginia. — England grew tired 
of the rule of the Puritans. When Cromwell died, it did 
not take long to bring back the slain king's son, who was 
crowned (1660) as Charles II. He was known as the 
" Merry Monarch." The anniversaries of the event were 
celebrated for more than a hundred years as " Restoration 
Day." The joy in England was reflected in Virginia, 
where Berkeley was again elected governor. He had been 
out of office since the Cromwell treaty (1651). All but 
Episcopalians were again banished, and the right to vote 
was restricted to property holders. The Burgesses then 
refused to call a new election and continued themselves 
and Berkeley in office for sixteen years. Berkeley was as 
secure in America as his king was in England. All this 
was indeed a move backward for the liberty-loving. Virgin- 
ians, and it led finally to resistance. 

Cromwell had enacted a navigation law (1651), requiring 
the colonists in America to deal with English merchants, 
and patronize English ships and no others. He had not 
required Virginia to obey this law, but King Charles 11. 
enforced it rigidly. The king went even further in his 



76 United States History for Schools 

reckless disregard for the rights of Virginians. He gave 
the whole colony to two of his favorite courtiers, Lord Ar- 
lington and Lord Culpepper. If the action of the Bur- 
gesses was a blow to liberty, this action of the king was a 
royal theft of their remaining rights. In the end the colo- 
nists won their cause in spite of the king's opposition. 

64. Bacon's Famous Rebellion of 1676. — In addition to 
being a despot, Governor Berkeley sought to become a rich 
man through the fur trade with the Indians. This in itself 
would have been no crime if he had respected the rights and 
safety of others. But the Indians began attacks on settlers, 
and fearing to spoil his profits, the governor refused to send 
out troops. Then a wealthy and influential young leader, 
named Nathaniel Bacon, sought a commission from the gov- 
ernor to lead volunteers against the Indians. The governor 
refused, and Bacon led forth his men without a commission 
and punished the hostiles. The governor proclaimed Bacon 
and his men "rebels" and started to pursue them. 

Virginia was thoroughly aroused by this condition of 
things, and so strong was the demand for the election of 
a new House of Burgesses that the governor had to yield. 
Bacon was triumphantly elected a member of the new 
assembly. A number of reform laws were at once enacted. 

The Indians evidently knew the governor was on their 
side. They became bolder than before. Still the stubborn 
governor refused a commission to Bacon, and so he and 
his men again marched against the Indians. This time, 
after defeating the savages, Bacon marched his little army 
to Jamestown, where the governor's militia was located. 
It looked as though the despot and his " rebel " would fight 
it out. Bacon was not afraid, but he did not want a war 
between the settlers themselves. He seized some of the 



Growth of Virginia 77 

wives of the governor's friends and placed them in front 
of his troops. They were called the " White Apron Bri- 
gade." The governor did not dare give the order to fire. 
That night property owners set fire to Jamestown and the 
governor fled. 

Just as victory seemed within his reach, Bacon suddenly 
sickened and died. Governor Berkeley returned for a cruel 
revenge. He condemned and hanged twenty of Bacon's 
leading men. King Charles 11. grew sick of the reports 
from Virginia. He said, "That old fool has put to death 
more people in that naked country than I have here for the 
death of my father." In disgust he summoned the gov- 
ernor to England, and then, for rebuke, refused to see him. 
It is said that the governor thereupon died of a " broken 
heart." 

From Bacon's Rebellion to the Declaration of Independ- 
ence was a span of just 100 years. Who can measure 
the influence of the small event upon the larger one ? 

While Virginia was developing, other American colonies 
were being planted and expanded. For the sake of clearer 
ideas of the growth of the different sections we will next 
study those nearest Virginia, the ones that are called her 
neighbors. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. How did Virginia's new charter differ from the old? 

2. Why was tobacco an important crop? 

3. Show how tobacco and slavery encouraged plantation life in Vir- 
ginia. 

4. Show the importance of Virginia's securing a local assembly. 

5. Show how an Indian battle changed Virginia's form of govern- 
ment. 

6. What was the nature of Cromwell's treaty with Virginia? 

7. Show how liberty wavered in Virginia. 

8. Name the causes and results of Bacon's Rebellion. 



CHAPTER VIII 

SOUTHERN NEIGHBORS OF VIRGINIA 

References. — Ashley's American 'History, pp. 59-61, 75-76; Hart's 
Source Book. pp. 48-51, 65-67, 71-73. 

Home Readings. — Fiske's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors; Hart's 
Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 63-66, 79-80, 143-144, 155-157. 

65. The Catholic Colony of Maryland. — One of the im- 
portant events referred to (§ 61) as occurring in the reign 
of King Charles I. was the founding of the colony of 
Maryland, named in honor of the king's wife, Queen 
Henrietta Maria. George Calvert, the first Lord Balti- 
more, was a prominent English Catholic. He grieved over 
the persecution of his fellow-Catholics in England and 
tried to secure a new home for them in Newfoundland. 
This having failed on account of the severe climate, he se- 
cured from Charles I. a grant of part of Virginia. Balti- 
more died, but his son Cecil Calvert succeeded to the grant 
and to his father's title of Lord Baltimore. He sent two 
younger brothers with three hundred settlers up the Po- 
tomac River. They bought an Indian village, paying for 
it in axes, hoes, and cloth. They called the place St. Mary's 
and at once decreed that men of all religions would be wel- 
come. Thus in 1634 the Catholics founded the first Amer- 
ican colony in which perfect toleration was established from 
the very beginning. 

66. Lord Baltimore as a Proprietor. — The English 
colonies in America were of three classes : charter colo- 
nies, royal provinces, and proprietary colonies. Virginia 

78 



Southern Neighbors of Virginia . 79 

passed from a charter colony into a royal province and 
narrowly escaped becoming a proprietary colony. Mary- 
land was the first one established as a proprietary colony. 
On receiving the grant, Lord Baltimore agreed to recog- 
nize the supremacy of the king by delivering to him two 
Indian arrows every year and by giving him one fifth of all 
the gold or silver found or mined in the colony. Aside 
from these slight reservations, Lord Baltimore was the 
owner and master in Maryland. But, in addition to being 
powerful, Lord Baltimore was also a charitable and wise 
man. He wanted every one to enjoy the religious freedom 
that had been denied to him and his friends at home. 
So he threw the gates of his colony wide open to the op- 
pressed of all creeds. He wished all to enjoy political 
freedom, and so he promptly yielded up his own supreme 
control and gave the settlers in his colony self-government 
from the first. These kind and wise measures attracted 
settlers of a fine quality. The industrious farmers soon 
had crops to sell and to exchange for goods from England. 

67. Poor Reward for Kindness. — - The Indians gave 
almost no trouble to the settlers of Maryland. They were 
always treated fairly, and as a result they kept the peace. 
But the land of Maryland had been carved from the big 
grant of Virginia. This displeased the older colony. The 
Episcopalians of Virginia did not like the Catholics of 
Maryland. And then there was an influential fur trader, 
named William Claiborne, who had established a trading 
post on Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay. . When it was 
found that this island was in the new grant of Maryland, 
the Virginia trader refused to give up possession and he 
was driven out by force. 

When the Puritans were driven out of Virginia, they 



8o United States History for Schools 

were welcomed into Maryland. They built a town that 
became a rival of St. Mary's. It was first called Providence, 
but the name was later changed to Annapolis. 

In all fairness those Puritans ought to have remained 
friendly with their Catholic neighbors, but when the Puri- 
tan party in England cut off the head of King Charles, the 
Puritans in Maryland turned against the Catholics. They 
joined with Claiborne, who sought revenge for the loss of 
his island. They captured St. Mary's. Claiborne became 
one of Cromwell's commissioners and began to readjust 
things in Maryland. No Catholic could now be elected to 
office, and they were even denied the freedom of worship. 
In 1655 another battle went against the Catholics. It was 
a gloomy time for the original settlers of Maryland, but 
help came from an unexpected source. Oliver Cromwell, 
the Puritan ruler of England, was a just, as well as a stern, 
man. He restored the colony to Lord Baltimore. 

Virginia gave Claiborne other property in place of his 
lost island, and it seemed as though the renewed tranquillity 
and prosperity would not be disturbed again. But Lord 
Baltimore lost the colony and regained it once more. 
When James II., who succeeded his brother Charles II. as 
king (1685), had disgusted the people and was driven from 
the throne in 1688, the Protestants in Maryland took the 
colony out of the hands of the proprietor. William and 
Mary, who ruled England jointly as king and queen after 
1688, made Maryland a royal province. The colony was 
later restored to the Baltimores and remained a proprietary 
colony down to the time of the Revolution. 

68. Colonies named for King Charles. — The Latin form 
for the name Charles is Carol/is, and from this Latin 
form was obtained the name Carolina. As Maryland 



Southern Neighbors of Virginia 



was carved out of the northern part of the Virginia grant, 
so Carolina was taken partly from the southern portion 
of the old Virginia and partly from what the Spaniards 
claimed as Florida. The first settlers had moved in 
from Virginia and made their homes around Albemarle 
Sound (1653). Ten years later King Charles II. rewarded 
eight of his favorite courtiers by granting them an im- 
mense tract of land in America, embracing all of what 
is now North and South Carolina, Georgia, and a piece 
of Florida. While Maryland had one proprietor, Carolina 
had eight. Before they sent out any colonists, some 
settlers moved on to their land from another quarter. 
They were Englishmen who moved across to Carolina 
from Barbados. 

The eight proprietors thought they would build in 
America a colony on scientific principles, so they engaged 
the philosopher John Locke to draw up a plan. When 
he had finished, he called it the " Grand Model," but it 
was really a grand failure. 

In that plan there were to be many officers, but the 
people were to be no better than live stock. They could 
not leave the land, and in fact if a piece of land was 
sold, the people were to be sold with it. No man who 
was brave enough to be a pioneer settler would be coward 
enough to endure such a scheme as that. It is needless 
to say that the " Grand Model " was a failure from the 
time it was written. 

69. How there came to be Two Carolinas. — In 1670 a 
settlement was planted near the mouth of the Ashley 
and Cooper rivers. This was called Charles Town, in 
honor of King Charles II. Its name was later changed 
to the shorter name of Charleston. This town grew 



82 United States History for Schools 

into one of the wealthiest and strongest cities of the 
South. The settlement got a governor of its own, and 
Albemarle in northern Carolina also got a governor. 
The settlers were independent in spirit, and when the 
governors misbehaved or became tyrannical, they were 
driven from ofhce. The proprietors then sent the Quaker 
governor, John Archdale, to govern over both colonies. 
But the proprietors later had more trouble with the 
settlers and in 1729 they sold their colony to the king. 
The division was made into North and South Carolina, 
and the two remained as loyal provinces until they became 
independent states of the Republic. 

70. Different Development in the Two Carolinas. — 
Though the Carolinas had a similar start, were owned 
by the same group of proprietors, and part of the time 
lived under the same governor, it is surprising how 
differently was developed their colonial history. Both 
enjoyed religious freedom, and through the independent 
spirit of the people both also enjoyed a large measure of 
political freedom. But the life and work of the people 
were different. 

In North Carolina there were many small farms. Those 
farmers had few slaves. While they grew some tobacco, 
their principal income was from the pitch and turpentine 
which they got from the trees of the pine forests. It is 
from this fact that the people of North Carolina to this 
day are proud to call themselves " Tar Heels." They 
were stanch lovers of liberty and were among the first 
to approve a declaration of independence. 

In South Carolina plantation life reached its highest 
development. Slavery increased rapidly, and just before 
the Revolution there were more black men than white 



^ Southern Neighbors of Virginia 83 

men in the colony. The rich planters lived in Charleston 
most of the time and employed overseers to look after 
their slaves at work on the big plantations. The Charles- 
ton homes were mansions. Their owners were generous 
and hospitable. They wore fine clothes and kept the best 
of horses and coaches. All this made Charleston the gay- 
est and richest city in the South. These rich planters 
secured all the lowlands near the shores and later men had 
to go back into the hills for homes. Those hill men had 
to struggle for their proper share of political power. 
Those struggles made of the men watchful citizens, whose 
children were destined to influence later events. 

The crops raised by the planters in South Carolina had 
something to do with the differences in colonial life. In 
1693 the governor received a present from a sea-captain. 
It was a small bag of rice from Madagascar. The swampy 
soil and the warm climate were just right for such a crop. 
The little bag of seed multiplied itself so rapidly that 
South Carolina became a great exporter of rice. In 1741 
the daughter of Governor Lucas planted seeds of the in- 
digo plant. Frost and wornis killed the sprouts from the 
first two plantings, but the third time the plants lived and 
a new industry of great importance was born in South 
Carolina. It was a most valuable crop until science taught 
people how to get blue dyes from coal tar. Cotton was 
also a crop in South Carolina, but it was not an important 
one until after the Revolution. Its effect on the lives of 
the planters and their slaves will be considered later (§ 258). 

71. Many Kinds of People. — We have seen how the 
Thirty Years' War made great disturbances in Europe 
(§55) and sent many people to America. In the same way 
the civil war in England (§61) sent away Cavaliers and 



84 United States History for Schools 

Roundheads to seek homes in new lands. From these and 
similar causes there flocked to the Carolinas many kinds of 
people. While the English were in the majority in North 
Carolina, there were many others, such as Scotch-Irish, 
Swiss, Germans, and Scotch Highlanders. 

There was a similar mixture of races in South Carolina, 
but that colony also got a valuable increase to its in- 
dustrious population from still another source. These 
were French Huguenots. Louis the Magnificent, king of 
France, had one of the longest reigns in history, as he was 
on the throne for seventy-two years, from 1643 to 1715- 
He was warlike and greedy for land. He was a Catholic 
and punished the Protestants, or Huguenots. They were 
living under the Edict of Nantes, which gave them some 
protection, but in 1685 that protection was removed when 
the Edict was revoked. Persecutions became unbearable 
and many Huguenots fled to America. Not a few of them 
settled in South Carolina, whose descendants have ample 
reasons for being proud of their forefathers who were 
pioneers in America. 

72. Georgia, Last of the Southern Colonies. — Years ago 
it was the custom to put men in prison when they could 
not pay their debts. It is a terrible thing now to think of 
such a condition, for the misery was unspeakable. If a 
man could not pay his debts while free, he certainly could 
not pay while locked up in jail. His family would suffer 
for food and the filled jails made heavier taxes for those 
who could pay. General James Edward Oglethorpe, a 
brave and noble soldier, did not like the idea of a man be- 
ing imprisoned for owing a dollar or more. He began an 
agitation to arrange a plan for such men to be given a new 
chance in life by moving them to America. Some friends 



Southern Neighbors of Virginia 



helped him. They got a charter for land between South 
Carolina and Florida and named the place. Georgia, in 
honor of King 




George II. 

Oglethorpe and 
his friends raised 
half a million dol- 
lars and promised 
the unfortunate 
men whom they 
were trying to 
help free homes, 
free tools, and a 
free passage over 
the ocean. Others 
besides the debt- 
ors tried to get 
some of those 

•1 Ci. T [AMIS Kl)\\\Kl) (.)< II IllOkll. 

benefits. In 1733 -^ 

the first settlement was made at Savannah. The last of 

the English colonies was begun. 

The Spaniards did not like the English way of crowding 
Florida's boundary farther and farther southward, but 
Oglethorpe brought more settlers and established Frederica 
(1736) as an outpost against Spanish claims. 

73. War between Spain and England. — When Spain and 
England began war in ( 1739), General Oglethorpe promptly 
marched from his colony to capture the Spanish town of 
St. Augustine. He failed, and the Spaniards then tried to 
capture Frederica. Oglethorpe's smaller army drove them 
off and he made another unsuccessful effort to capture 
St. Augustine. One thing these battles settled was that 



86 



United States History for Schools 



Georgia was there to stay, and the Spaniards would have to 

keep hands off. 

74. The Missionary Quality. — Among the early visitors 

to Georgia were John and Charles Wesley, founders of the 

Methodist Church, They came to Georgia as missionaries 

to the Indians. As 
the founding of 
Georgia was also a 
sort of missionary 
work for the poor, 
both liquor and 
slaves were forbid- 
d e n. U n f o r t u- 
nately the people 
did not cling to 
these two prohibi- 
tions. The farmers 
began to raise rice, 
indigo, and to- 
bacco. They 
found it cost them 
much more to raise 
their crops by pay- 
ing for labor than 
it cost their neigh- 

loiiN \\i:.si.i';v. , • o X.1- /^ 

bors m bouth Car- 
olina who owned slaves. The bar against slavery was re- 
moved and so was that against rum. 

Georgia prospered as a proprietary colony until 1752, 
when it became a royal province and remained such until 
the Revolution. While Virginia and her neighbors were 
making all this progress, many events were taking place in 




Southern Neighbors of Vlrgniia 87 

the other colonies. Those events will be studied under 
the two groups, New England colonies and the Dutch and 
Quaker colonies. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. What attitude did tlie Catholic colony of Maryland , assume 
toward other faiths ? 

2. What did Lord Baltimore do about local government in Mary- 
land ? 

3. Show how Lord Baltimore lost and regained his colonies. 

4. What sort of government did the first proprietors of Carolina 
propose? 

5. How did there come to be two Carolinas ? 

6. How did the Carolinas differ one from the other ? 

7. What kind of peoples settled in the Carolinas ? 

8. Why did Oglethorpe plan the colony of Georgia ? 



CHAPTER IX 

INCREASE OF NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 49-59; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 37-41, 45-48. 51-57. 

Home Readings. — Drake's Making of New England ; Fiske's Begin- 
ning of New England ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. 1., pp. 32-37, 67-70, 
136-140. 

75. Massachusetts Bay Colony. — Plymouth was the 
pioneer colony in New England (§§ 46 to 53). The vigor- 
ous determination and the success of those Pilgrim Fathers 
could not fail to attract attention among the Puritans in 
England as the rule of King Charles I. became more and 
more arbitrary. He quarreled with Parliament and defied 
that agency of his people by levying taxes to suit himself 
and by punishing people who refused to pay them. Strange 
as it now seems, that ruthless king was induced to grant a 
liberal charter to a newly organized company of Puritans. 
Perhaps he hoped to find it cheaper to favor their going 
to America than to keep the bold Puritans in English 
prisons. 

Before the charter was secured, some leading men of 
wealth among the Puritans formed a company and bought 
from the successors of the old Plymouth Company, that 
had been organized in 1606, a tract of land in New England 
along the coast from three miles south of the Charles to 
three miles north of the Merrimac River. They sent out 
a colony under John Endicott as leader. This colony 
named their place of settlement Salem, meaning Hope. 

88 



Increase of New England Colonies 89 

The next year (1629) the company was increased by the 
addition of a large number of other leading and influential 
Puritans. The company was incorporated under the long 
name of the Governor and Company of Massachusetts 
Bay in New England. It was this new company that got 
the favorable charter from King Charles. Under that 
charter the company and its colonists were given unusual 
freedom. The freemen of the company could choose their 
own governor, deputy, and " assistants," as the first legis- 
lators were called. They could make their own laws, the 
only restriction being that those laws must not conflict 
with the laws of England. Of course matters of religion 
and education were also in their hands. 

76. The Great Immigration. — In the year 1630 a thou- 
sand immigrants came to New England. The leader, John 
Winthrop, brought one fleet of eleven ships with over 
seven hundred immigrants. They brought with them ample 
supplies, including horses and cattle. John Winthrop was 
chosen governor. He was an honest, upright, fearless 
man and is justly one of the best beloved characters in 
early American history. As Salem was overcrowded, new 
towns were at once founded. These included Charlestown, 
Cambridge, Watertown, Roxbury, and Boston. The last 
one, Boston, soon became the capital. 

The Pilgrims were all poor men, but many of these 
Puritans of the new settlements were rich. They included 
strong men who would have been natural leaders in Eng- 
land if they had not been made exiles for conscience' sake. 
Francis Higginson, the minister and teacher, was a gradu- 
ate of Cambridge University, as was also Pastor Skelton, 
who had been driven from his pulpit in England because 
of his Puritan beliefs. It was said : " God sifted a whole 



90 United States History for Schools 

nation that He might send choice grain over into this 
wilderness." 

77. A New Church Established. — The Puritans were 
not Separatists like the Pilgrims. They believed in puri- 
fying the Church of England. Failing to do that in Eng- 
land, they did not wish to risk a failure in America. So 
they decided on independent government of the church. 
Each congregation should govern itself without bishops or 
other officers as in the English church. This was the 
origin of the Congregational Church. But these Puritans 
did not want any other creeds except their own in their 
towns. They would not tolerate other forms of religion. 
They went even further. Among their first laws was one 
providing that no man could be a voter who was not a 
member of their churches. Thus the church and state 
were united in Massachusetts. 

78. The Town and the Government. — The keynote of 
government in Massachusetts was the town. There were 
two reasons why they settled and remained in towns. The 
first was to secure protection from Indian attacks and the 
second was to be near the meetinghouse, or church, the 
center of their religious and political life. 

The governor, deputy governor, and the eighteen assist- 
ants met each month to perform the duties put upon them 
at the quarterly meeting of the freemen or voters. These 
quarterly meetings were called Courts of the Quarter Ses- 
sions. There were also annual meetings called the Gen- 
eral Courts. They were attended by the voters as well as 
by the officers. There ought to have been no political 
trouble where every freeman had an equal voice in the 
government. But in 163 1 the assistants decided to hold 
office until they were removed by the freemen. They pro- 



Increase of New England Colonies 91 

ceeded to levy taxes to build a fort at Cambridge. In that 
same year (163 1) the people of Watertown objected to that 
tax, claiming they would become slaves if they submitted 
to taxation without representation. The General Court 
decided that Watertown was right, and it was arranged 
soon afterwards that each town should have two represen- 
tatives in the General Court. These representatives were 
called deputies, and with them should sit the governor, 
deputy governor, and the assistants. This new General 
Court, or legislature, was to look after the general govern- 
ment, while the towns would continue to exercise authority 
in local matters. The General Court continued to meet 
as one house until 1644, when an important change took 
place. In a dispute that arose through a lawsuit over a 
lost pig, it was decided that they would have two houses 
for their legislature. The assistants were to form one 
house, a sort of Senate, and the deputies were to be the 
House of Representatives. 

79. Political and Religious Troubles. — All was not peace 
and harmony in Massachusetts. The cruel Thirty Years' 
War was filling many graves in Europe on account of dif- 
ferences in reUgion. Charles I. was having difficulty in 
playing the part of tyrant in England, and much of his 
troubles arose from the stubborn way the people insisted 
on their rights. At the same time the Puritans made 
trouble for themselves through stubborn methods in church 
and state. Those who believed the new legislature was 
becoming too aristocratic pulled away to form new settle- 
ments where the old town meeting would govern. They 
were drawn toward the fertile valley of the Connecticut 
River. We shall see later how their new settlements grew 
into another colony. 



92 



United States History for Schools 



Complaints reached England that the Puritans were 
rigidly enforcing their new church laws and were setting 
up an entirely independent government. King Charles 
did not like this, and he demanded that Massachusetts give 
up her charter. Of course the Puritans were frightened 
over the prospect of losing their liberties, but they were 
by no means cowards. They delayed answering the king's 
demands and used the time to build forts, collect guns and 

ammunition, and to drill 
_ the militia. If they had 

to fight, they proposed 
to be ready. Before 
the king could carry out 
his plans against Mas- 
sachusetts, civil war 
broke out in England 
(§ 6i)and such troubles 
for the colony were 
postponed. 

Roger Williams, the 
able minister at Salem, 
gave offense to the 
strict Puritans as an 
ardent Separatist (§ "j"]^ and by preaching that men ought 
not to be punished for staying away from church or for 
holding different views than the church on religious ques- 
tions. At that time it was believed that men should be 
punished for such things, and the doctrine preached by 
Roger Williams was deemed to be dangerous. The Gen- 
eral Court gave him a trial, and by a close vote it was 
decided that he must go back to England. He was warned 
of the decision and in the winter (1636) he escaped into the 




Roger Williams. 



Increase of New England Colonies 93 

wilderness and lived with the Indians, who were his friends. 
We shall see that he later founded a new colony. 

Roger Williams was not the only one whose preaching 
disturbed the Puritans. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson also 
preached a doctrine that some did not like. She drew fine 
lines about persons in a " state of grace." The colony was 
divided on this exciting subject, and even some of the min- 
isters took sides with Mrs. Hutchinson. Finally, in 1638, 
she was banished from the colony. 

80. First Schools and Printing. — As early as 1635 a 
public school was begun in Boston. At first the schools 
were for the teaching of reading and writing so that no 
child would grow up who could not read the English Bible. 
Later the grammar schools were ordered by the General 
Court for towns able to support them. The Puritans loved 
education. Many of them were graduates of the English 
universities, especially Cambridge. In 1636 the General 
Court voted a grant of four hundred pounds for a college 
at Newtown. This seems a small sum in these days of 
millionaires' endowments, but that sum was equal to a 
whole year's tax of the little colony, and it would amount 
to about $10,000 in our present money. Two years after 
its foundation a minister named John Harvard died at 
Charlestown. In his will he bequeathed his library of three 
hundred and twenty volumes and about seven hundred and 
fifty pounds in money to the new college. As a mark of 
gratitude for these fine gifts, the General Court ordered 
the new college to be named Harvard College. It is the 
oldest college in the United States. To keep alive the 
memory of the old English university the name of New- 
town was changed to Cambridge. In this town of Cam- 
bridge there was also set up the first printing press in the 
English colonies (1639). 



94 United States History for Schools 




^^^^^^\\J^>vh^U. 




John Winthkof. 



Increase of New England Colonies 95 

81. The Body of Liberties. — The religious and fac- 
tional disturbances made men feel that their rights were 
not sufficiently defined. To cure this defect two min- 
isters — John Cotton of Boston and Nathaniel Ward of 
Ipswich — drew up codes, or bodies of written laws. 
The code prepared by Ward was adopted (1641) under 
the name of The Body of Liberties. Here was an effort 
to get equal justice for all. The code contained one hun- 
dred laws. Some of them were laws from England and 
some were taken from the Bible. One curious provision in 
words that seem queer now was as follows : " Everie 
marryed woeman shall be free from bodilie correction 
or stripes by her husband, unlesse it be in his owne de- 
fence upon her assalt." 

82. Founding of Connecticut. — We have seen (§79) 
how political friction caused a migration from Massachu- 
setts to the Connecticut Valley. The Dutch of New Nether- 
land believed this was their land. They had built a little 
fort at Hartford, but were surprised, when sending a vessel 
to that port (1635), to find an English settlement at the 
mouth of the river. John Winthrop, Jr. , who represented 
two English noblemen, Lord Brook and Lord Say and 
Sele, was sent to establish a colony on lands granted 
to them. He took parts of the two lords' names and 
formed Saybrook as the name for his town. He stopped 
the Dutch from going up the river. 

Thomas Hooker, pastor of the church at Cambridge, 
led a party of Puritans, who believed in more democratic 
government than they were finding in Massachusetts, 
by an overland route to the Connecticut Valley. There 
were one hundred men, women, and children in the party. 
For two weeks they tramped through the woods, driving 



96 United States History for Schools 

their cattle before them to their new homes. Other 
pastors followed, and by 1636 they had begun the three 
towns of Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford. 

The citizens of these three towns met in Hartford 
(1639) and drew up a written constitution, which is one of 
the landmarks in American history. It is more important 
than the Mayfloivcr compact (§ 50) or the Virginia ordi- 
nance for representative government (§ 59). In fact, 
historians claim this Connecticut constitution is " the 
first written constitution known to history that created 
a government." Massachusetts objected, but in spite 
of that the colony of Connecticut was established with 
a government of its own. The governor and magistrates 
were to be elected by the freemen, and with two deputies 
from each town, made up the General Court, or legisla- 
ture. A man did not have to belong to the church to 
be a voter, as was the case in Massachusetts. 

83. The Pequot Indian War (1637). — Before the con- 
stitution was adopted, the colony freed itself from danger 
of Indian attacks. The Pequots did not relish the idea 
of the white men crowding into their lands. They 
planned to kill the white settlers and were trying to in- 
duce the Narragansett Indians to attack the Massachu- 
setts settlers. It was then that Roger Williams showed 
what a big man he was. Driven from Massachusetts, 
he was an exile among those Narragansett Indians, and 
yet he succeeded in persuading them not to attack the 
white men who had driven him away. Hearing that 
the Pequots were planning war early in 1637, the three 
Connecticut towns sent ninety men under Captain John 
Mason. The night before starting on the. march was 
spent in prayer. The little army with some friendly 



Increase of New England Colonies 97 

Indians and with some soldiers sent by Massachusetts 
destroyed the Indians' homes, killed many of them, and 
made it impossible for that tribe to offer any further 
resistance. 

84. The Colony of New Haven. — It has been stated 
(§ 61) that King Charles I. had so much trouble at home 
that he paid little attention to America. We have seen 
the three new towns organized into the colony of Con- 
necticut. This was done without a charter. While that 
new government was being organized another new colony 
was planted in the same region, and this, also, was done 
without a charter. It was strictly a Puritan colony. The 
two leaders were an able and influential minister, John 
Davenport, and Theophilus Eaton, a wealthy English 
merchant. Arriving in Boston, they heard of a good 
place for a town near the Dutch settlement and the people 
who had come with them agreed to settle there. In 1638 
they formed their new town and called it New Haven. 
Being very devoted members of their church, they agreed 
to be governed by the laws of Moses, as set forth in the 
Bible. Theophilus Eaton was elected governor, and he 
was so well liked that he was reelected every year until 
his death, twenty years later. 

This strict town drew other Puritan settlers of the same 
kind, who quickly planted the new towns of Guilford, 
Milford, and Stamford. In 1643 the towns united into 
the colony of New Haven and agreed to continue the 
strict church rules in government. Only church members 
were allowed to vote or hold office. Each town had seven 
magistrates who were called the Seven Pillars of the 
Church. Before regular courts were organized they 
tried all petty cases and administered the local town 



98 United States History for Schools 

affairs. The General Court, or legislature, consisted of 
the governor, deputy governor, council, and deputies, or 
representatives, of the towns. These officers were all 
elected by the votes of the freemen or church members. 

86. Two Colonies Nortli of Massachusetts. — Though 
the London Company planted the colony of Virginia, 
the Plymouth Company (§ 35) did not plant a single 
colony. It issued patents for others to use its lands. 
Before giving up all claims to the lands, some of its 
members wished to retain a part for themselves. Among 
these were Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John 
Mason. Gorges was especially anxious to build up a 
province of which he would be proprietor. Both these 
men were Episcopalians and had no love for Puritans. 
The king granted them the land between the Merrimac 
and Kennebec rivers, and they called their grant Maine. 
The two proprietors divided the grant (1629). Mason 
got the western portion, which he called New Hampshire. 

Gorges became Lord Proprietor of the province or 
county of Maine. The principal town he planted was 
Saco. He never visited Maine, but was represented by 
his son Thomas, the deputy governor. Efforts were made 
in vain to induce wealthy men to settle in Maine. Those 
who came were representatives or servants of companies 
engaged in the business of fishing or of fur trading. In 
his old age Gorges drew up a wonderful constitution 
for his province. There were to be offices enough for 
nearly every one of the settlers ; private citizens would 
have been scarce. But nothing came of the scheme. 
The colony languished and was finally absorbed by Massa- 
chusetts. 

New Hampshire had a similar experience, except for 



Increase of New England Colonies 99 

the fact that other settlers had gone there before Captain 
Mason became proprietor. Those settlers were fur traders 
from Plymouth, exiles from Massachusetts during the 
troubles over the preaching by Mrs. Hutchinson, and 
fish dealers from England. The new proprietary town 
was Portsmouth (1630). Though this town grew in im- 
portance, the others remained independent and out of 
sympathy, on account of religious differences. Like Maine 
the colony was absorbed by Massachusetts. 

86. Roger Williams founds Rhode Island. — We have 
seen how Roger Williams was exiled from Massachusetts 
on account of his religious beliefs ( § 79) and how he 
pleaded with the Indians to spare his enemies (§ 8^). In 
the spring of 1636 this exile, with five of his disciples, 
established a town at the head of Narragansett Bay and 
called it Providence, intending it as a " shelter for persons 
distressed in conscience." He had a bitter time alone in 
the forest in the middle of winter until he found the 
camp of his friend Chief Massasoit. When his five friends 
came to him in the spring and he was able to begin a 
new town, it is no wonder that he called the place Provi- 
dence. He had suffered for conscience' sake, and so he 
started his government by allowing perfect freedom in 
matters of religion. It was the only really tolerant colony 
in New England. 

When Massachusetts began to expel the followers of 
Mrs. Hutchinson's new creed, Williams invited them to his 
settlement. A party of them came in 1637 ^^'^ settled on 
Aquidneck Island, afterwards called Rhode Island. They 
called their town Portsmouth ; unHke Williams, these people 
were so strict in their beliefs that a portion of the party 
drew away and started the town of Newport, also on 



lOO United States History for Schools 

Rhode Island. The two towns united as the colony of 
Rhode Island. Warwick was a new town just south of 
Providence. 

In 1644 Roger Williams went to England and obtained 
from Parliament a very favorable charter for the Provi- 
dence Plantations. The people were allowed to make 
their own laws and they were to enjoy complete religious 
freedom. People of all forms of belief flocked to the new col- 
ony. It was too much to hope that perfect harmony should 
exist in such a mixed community in that day of strict church 
rules. The Rhode Island towns broke away and got an 
independent charter, but Roger Williams made peace with 
them and got a charter from King Charles II. (1662) which 
was so favorable and so much appreciated that it was kept 
as the constitution until 1842, long after the Providence 
Plantations had become one of the United States under 
the name of Rhode Island. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Show how the Massachusetts Bay Colony got a favorable charter. 

2. What kind of men fled to America for conscience' sake ? 

3. How was the Congregational Church begun ? 

4. Show how the town governed in local matters and how a legis- 
lature of two houses was developed. 

5. What disturbed the harmony in Massachusetts .'' 

6. How did the public schools begin ? 

7. What was the '' Body of Liberties '' ? 

8. State the importance of Connecticut's first constitution. 

9. Show how Roger Williams interceded with his Indian friends for 
his white enemies. 

10. Show how New Haven began as a strictly religious settlement. 

11. Show how Maine and New Hampshire began as proprietary 
colonies. 

12. Why did the people flock to the new colony of Providence 
Plantations 1 



CHAPTER X 

THE DUTCH AND QUAKER COLONIES 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 63-73 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 42-44, 58-65, 67-71 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 

493-494- 

Home Readings. — BuelFs William Penn ; Fiske's Dutch and Quaker 
Colonies; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. I., pp. 81-89, 140-142, 144-148, 
159-162; Roberts's New York; Irving's Knickerbocker History of 
New York. 

87. How the Dutch encouraged Settlement. — We have 
seen the Dutch getting a foothold on the banks of the 
Hudson River, calling the region New Netherland and 
naming their principal town New Amsterdam (§ 44). 
They were just as hopeful and ambitious as the other 
colonizers. They realized that they had enemies. Unlike 
the other colonists, they did not count all the Indians 
among the enemies, for they made friends with most of 
them by fair and honest treatment. The enemies that 
worried the Dutch were the French in the north, the New 
Englanders in the northeast, and the Virginians and 
others in the southwest. As a safeguard against these 
enemies, and to strengthen the colony, the West Indian 
Company of Holland made a tempting offer to its mem- 
bers. Any one who would take at least fifty settlers to 
America would be made a patroon or patron. Each 
patroon was to receive a large tract of land. His settlers 
were to live on his plantation. They would not have to 
pay taxes for ten years. They would receive tools and 



I02 United States History for Schools 

stock for the farm free of cost and would also have the 
services of a preacher and teacher. This looked very 
good, but there were serious restrictions as well. The 
settlers were not allowed to leave the land for ten years. 
They were also denied the right to vote or hold office, and 
the right of trial by jury was also denied them. On his 
own plantation the patroon made the laws and was gover- 





CosTUMES OF Dutch Colonists. 



nor and judge to his settlers. To make matters worse, 
the settlers had to sell all they raised to the patroon, and 
if they wished to grind grain for food, they had to do it at 
the patroon's mill. 

This made a rich class of patroons, who were more pow- 
erful and wealthy than many of the princes of Europe. 
They lived on their large estates in the summer, and in 
winter they made New Amsterdam a gay and fashionable 



The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 103 

town. This was much Hke the condition in Charleston, 
South Carolina (§ 70). But at the same time the patroon 
system made the Dutch settlers discontented. 

88. Governor Peter Stuyvesant. — Of the four governors 
in the history of New Netherland, the last one, Peter Stuy- 
vesant, was the most interesting and important. Mrs. Van 
Rensselaer says he had " a stern, clean-shaven face, a long 
drooping nose, a bald crown, partly covered by a skull cap, 
long side-locks, a steel cuirass, a scarf, a broad linen collar 
with a cord and tassels." He was brave and honest, but 
he was also strict and stubborn. 

Before he came, the discontented people had been de- 
manding the right to vote, and to have some measure of 
self-government. He did not believe in allowing every- 
body to vote, for, said he, " In that case a thief would vote 
for a thief, and a smuggler for a smuggler." He was also 
a strong believer in the Dutch Reformed Church, and he 
growled at the number of people in New Netherland who 
belonged to other churches. As a nation the Dutch be- 
lieved in religious toleration. Knowing this. Huguenots, 
Jews, Baptists, Quakers, Puritans, and Scotch Presbyte- 
rians had settled in New Netherland. The new governor 
went so far in his opposition as to fine a Baptist preacher 
^500, and each of those who went to hear, him $100. He 
whipped and banished Quakers. 

The people objected to these measures so strongly that 
the governor was compelled to allow every one to worship 
God as he thought best, and he was also compelled to allow 
the people to elect a commission of nine men to help him 
rule. In 1653 New Amsterdam was given its own city 
government. This did not help much, as the governor was 
allowed to appoint all the officers. 



I04 United States History for Schools 

89. Further Objections by the People. — Taxes levied 
without their consent was one of the things the settlers op- 
posed. Governor Stuyvesant levied a new tax and brought 
on more objections. He proposed to build a wall across 
the end of Manhattan Island. The wall was to be on the 
north edge of the town, and was intended as a military de- 
fense for the homes of the citizens. It was built in spite 
of the objections, and from it has come the name of the 
present Wall Street, the financial center of the United 
States. The governor's farm was on the east side of the 
island, and the road leading to it he called the " bowery 
lane," which is the origin of another famous street in 
New York City. 

The objections to the new tax were so strong that the 
governor allowed a convention of delegates from eight 
towns to discuss matters. He did not like the blunt way 
in which they expressed themselves and sent the dele- 
gates home. The governor was quick-tempered, but the 
people were patient. 

90. New Netherland becomes New York. — The people 
who were so long denied their just rights were in no mood 
to fight for their governor or their colony. Before they 
knew of any outbreak of war between Holland and Eng- 
land, there appeared at New Amsterdam (1664) an Eng- 
lish fleet. The commanding officer sent the governor a 
demand to surrender, offering favorable terms. The old 
governor was furious. He tore up the paper and declared 
he would fight. But the Dutch citizens learned that the 
English promised protection of life and property, freedom 
of worship, and a representative government. All they 
had struggled for so long was now in easy reach. They 
refused to obey Governor Stuyvesant. Although still of 



The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 



105 



fighting temper, the governor knew he could not fight 
the fleet alone. Then the Dutch mothers appeared before 
him and begged him not to endanger them and the chil- 
dren by a fight. 

The governor yielded. The Dutch flag was hauled down 
from the fort and the English flag took its place. Charles 




New Amsterdam. 

II. claimed that the region was really English on account 
of the discoveries by the Cabots (§ 14). He gave it to his 
brother James, Duke of York. As soon as the " conquest " 
was completed, the name was changed from New Nether- 
land to New York, and the city's name was also changed 
from New Amsterdam to "His Majesty's Town of New 
York." In like manner Fort Orange was changed to 
Albany. 

91. The Good Promise Broken. — The people who re- 



io6 United States History for Schools 

joiced over the prospect of local self-government were 
doomed to years of further disappointment. The " Duke's 
Laws " announced by the English Governor Nichols in 
1665 did not contain provisions for the promised representa- 
tive government. They did allow freedom of worship, 
trial by jury, and the election of town officers, but no part 
was given the people in the making of their own laws. 

The people still struggled for their rights. They sent 
an earnest petition to the Duke of York. He was opposed 
to representative governments, but was constrained to 
grant the request in 1683. There was rejoicing in New 
York over the good news. The first assembly of eighteen 
members passed good laws and drew up a document called 
the Charter of Liberties, which they sent to England for 
the duke's approval. But Charles IL died in 1685 and his 
brother, the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne as 
King James IL He at once became a tyrant to the people 
of New York. The Charter of Liberties was denied, and 
the new king also took away the representative assembly 
he had granted as the Duke of York. 

92. New York acts when James II. is Dethroned. — New 
York had more reason than any other colony in America 
for hating King James II. He was also hated in Eng- 
land. After three years of tyrannical rule, the people of 
England drove him from the throne and called King 
William and Queen Mary to rule over them. When this 
news reached New York, a tradesman named Jacob 
Leisler seized the government. He had little education 
and was ill suited for the business of government. He 
made many mistakes, but managed to hold control for 
three years. In 1691 a new governor was sent to New 
York. Leisler was tried for treason and condemned. It 



The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 107 

is said tl c new governor was intoxicated when he signed 
the death warrant of Leisler. Many people sympathized 
with the merchant's honest efforts. They opposed his 
execution, and for many years there were factions in New 
York on account of the unfortunate trial and execution. 

Wilham and Mary soon granted the representative 
assembly, and the long struggle for self-government was 
ended. 

93. New Sweden becomes Delaware. — It has already 
been related how Sweden obtained a brief foothold in the 
new world and held it until the Dutch under Governor 
Stuyvesant "conquered " their settlement (§ 54). Nine 
years after this conquest New Netherland itself was con- 
quered (1664) by the English. The " three lower counties 
on the Delaware " then became the property of the Duke 
of York. 

Maryland desired to secure these " counties," but 
WiUiam Penn was a personal friend of the Duke of York 
and he succeeded in purchasing them for himself. He 
desired them to give his colony of Pennsylvania a better 
outlet to the sea. The people, wishing an independent 
existence, got an assembly of their own and a deputy 
governor. In 1693 the union with Pennsylvania was 
again brought about. Ten years later the colony once 
more obtained its own assembly and continued independent 
to that extent until the Revolution. It was not wholly 
independent, however, for it was under the same governor 
as Pennsylvania, their own executive being only a deputy 
governor. 

94. New Jersey a Gift from the Duke of York. — The 
land from the Hudson to the Delaware was counted a 
part of New Netherland. The Dutch had settled the 



io8 United States History for Schools 

town of Bergen there as early as 1618. The settlers 
bought their lands from the Indians and felt secure. When 
the Duke of York received New Netherland, he promptly 
gave part of it to two personal friends, Lord John Berkeley 
and Sir George Carteret. He called the territory New Jersey 
because Carteret had defended the island of Jersey against 
the forces of Cromwell during the civil war in England. 

95. New Jersey divided into Two Colonies. — The two 
proprietors divided their gift and Berkeley took what was 
called West Jersey. East Jersey went to Carteret. The 
settlers who bought lands from the Indians refused to pay 
rent to the new proprietors of the colonies. The dispute 
led Berkeley to sell West Jersey to William Penn and 
some other Quakers. The Quakers gave such a liberal 
form of government that four hundred Quakers left Eng- 
land (1677) and settled Burlington in West Jersey. Not 
realizing much of success, the heirs of Carteret sold East 
Jersey to William Penn and his friends. Though both 
parts were then owned by the Quakers, they were governed 
separately for a time. 

96. The Jerseys united into a Royal Province. — William 
Penn had to argue his case against his friend, the Duke 
of York, for the duke wanted to take back his gift of the 
Jersey lands. Penn won his case and held the colonics 
until the Duke of York became King James II. As king 
he took the colonies and placed them under Governor 
Andros of New York. When King James lost his crown 
in that "Glorious Revolution" of 1688, Andros also fell 
from power in America. New Jersey went back into the 
hands of the Quaker proprietors. 

These proprietors grew tired of the disputes of the set- 
tlers over the payment of land rents, and in 1702 they 



The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 109 

surrendered their proprietary rights. New Jersey again 
became a royal or crown province, though in part a de- 
pendency of New York, since both colonies were under the 
same governor. The colony had its own assembly, and its 
own local government, and all the liberties that other favored 
colonies possessed, except that of having its own governor. 
The colony prospered with its population of Quakers and 
representatives of other creeds. In 1738 New Jersey got its 
own governor and then continued as a regular royal province 
down to the time of the Revolution. New Jersey's last 
colonial governor was the son of Benjamin Franklin. 

97. " Children of the Light," or Quakers. — It has been 
shown how in the Reformation (§23) the Christian church 
was divided and how the separation occurred in England 
(§ 30). The divisions were soon multiplied, and many new 
creeds arose in different lands. One of the most remark- 
able of these creeds was begun by George Fox. His father 
was such a devoted member of the Church of England that 
he was called the " Righteous Christian." Young George 
was given a careful rehgious training, but at an early age 
he was convinced that every man should be guided by the 
"inner Hght," or the " inward voice." His followers called 
themselves " Children of the Light." 

Fox was twenty-five years old when he began his troubled 
career as a preacher. It was in 1649, the very year in 
which the victorious Puritans beheaded King Charles I. 
The Puritans and the Presbyterians were in control of 
church matters then, but they could not endure this new 
" firebrand." Fox was frequently put in prison. His 
preaching was mostly to crowds of poor folks, and many 
of them were so affected that they trembled and fell to the 
ground. In this way came the name of Quakers. 



no United States History for Schools 

98. William Penn, Quaker. — The most important con- 
vert to the faith was WilUam Penn, the son of Admiral 
William Penn of the English Navy. The Admiral tried to 
give his son a fine education and sent him to Oxford. But 
the boy had imbibed Quaker sentiments, and when the gov- 




WiLLiAM Penn. 



ernment of King Charles II. started to remove instructors 
for religious reasons, young Penn joined other students in 
some rough ways of expressing disapproval. Penn was 
banished from Oxford. He had quarrels with his father, 
because, as a Quaker, he would not take off his hat to him, 
or to the king, or to the Duke of York, or to anybody else. 



The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 1 1 1 

Young Penn began to preach and was often put in prison. 
He was reconciled with his father, and when the Admiral 
died (1670), the son, then twenty-six years old, inherited a 
fortune, which included fifteen thousand pounds, due from 
King Charles II. to the Admiral. 

99. The Charter and the Name of Pennsylvania. — We 
have already seen how Penn and some other Quakers had 
bought the Jerseys (§§ 95-96). The Quakers were cruelly 
persecuted in England, and these leaders wanted safe 
homes for their followers. Penn's writings, especially his 
greatest book, entitled " No Cross, No Crown," gained him 
reputation even among those who hated his religion. He 
was also known to be brave and honest. His interest in 
getting homes for his people in America was a noble one. 
Finally the king agreed to pay his debt by granting Penn's 
request for a tract of land. When the boundaries were 
finally settled, the tract contained about forty-five thousand 
square miles. 

Penn suggested that the land be called " Sylvania," on 
account of the forests known to be there. The king con- 
sented, but insisted on adding the word " Penn," in honor 
of the dead Admiral. Penn objected and tried his best to 
prevent his family name receiving such prominent recogni- 
tion. All his objections failed, and the name of Pennsyl- 
vania came to stay. 

100. Penn liberal to All White Men and Indians. — The 
founder of this new colony had suffered much for his religion. 
He therefore decided that in Pennsylvania there should be 
perfect freedom of conscience. Knowing that people loved 
freedom of government as well as freedom of conscience, 
he decided that the people themselves should rule. A large 
colony of settlers at once moved to Pennsylvania. 



112 United States History for Schools 

Penn visited his colony (1682) and the next year laid out 
a plan of a city which he called Philadelphia, meaning 
brotherly love. Under a tree he met the Indians and made 
a treaty with them, buying their interest in the lands and 
making them many fine presents. That treaty was faith- 
fully kept by the Indians for sixty years. If those Indians 
liked any white man and wished to praise him, they would 
say he was as good as William Penn. The tree under which 
the treaty was made was known as the Treaty Elm. It was 
blown down (18 10) and a monument now marks the place. 

101. The Liberal Government. — The government which 
Penn established for his colony was true to his promises 
of freedom. As a proprietor he owned the lands and 
would name the governor, but each settler as he became a 
landholder or taxpayer should have the right to vote, and 
the voters should elect the members of the council and the 
assembly. In that way the people made their own laws. 
There was also freedom of worship. The first laws pro- 
vided for kind treatment of the Indians, that prisoners 
should be treated humanely, that each child should be 
taught a trade, that trial by jury should be extended to 
Indians as well as to white men, and that death should be the 
penalty for only two crimes, murder and treason. In Eng- 
land at that time the death penalty was inflicted for many 
lesser crimes. 

102. Troubles over Boundaries and Quitrents. — The 
proprietor of Maryland and the proprietor of Pennsylvania 
had no way of knowing at first the precise line that divided 
their properties. The dispute began at once and Penn 
went back to England to settle the trouble (1684). It was 
not easily settled. In fact no agreement was reached un- 
til 1732, years after Penn's death. In 1776 Charles Mason 



The Dutch and Quaker Colonies 113 

and Jeremiah Dixon, of London, mathematicians and sur- 
veyors, came to America and surveyed the boundary line 
three hundred miles long. Along the line were placed stone 
markers. On one side of each stone was carved the coat of 
arms of Lord Baltimore, and on the other that of William 
Penn. This was one of the most famous boundary lines in 
America, for later the " Mason and Dixon Line " was re- 
ferred to as the boundary between North and South (§324). 
The liberal government attracted all kinds of people in 
large numbers. Friction with the Quakers might naturally 
be expected. But the colony was very prosperous and the 
settlers had few serious troubles. One thing did rankle, 
however: Penn and his heirs were proprietors and, as such, 
were entitled to small quitrents from the landholders. The 
settlers wanted to own their farms and homes outright and 
objected to continual rents, however small. Quarrels over 
this question lasted through the colonial times. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1 . Why were Dutch settlers discontented under the patroon system ? 

2. What kind of governor was Peter Stuyvesant ? 

3. Why did the Dutch settlers welcome English rule in New Neth- 
erland ? 

4. Trace the change from New Netherland to New York. 

5. How were the settlers disappointed under the English ? 

6. Who granted New York self-government ? 

7. What measure of independence did Delaware get before the 
Revolution ? 

8. Trace the division of New Jersey and the reunion into a royal 
province. 

9. How did the Quakers get their name and by what other names 
were they known ? 

10. What do you most admire about the character of William Penn ? 

11. What did the Indians think of Penn ? 

12. Show how the government of Pennsylvania was liberal. 



CHAPTER XI 

NEW ENGLAND UNITED 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 76-84. 

Home Readings. — CogswelFs Regicides ; Eggleston's Life in the 
Eighteenth Century, pp. 32-39 ; Guerber's Stories of the Thirteen Colo- 
nies. 

103. "The United Colonies of New England."— The 

sturdy Puritans who sought more democracy by going out of 
Massachusetts to plan new homes in the Connecticut Valley 
(§ 82) faced Indian trouble and war (§ 83) at once. They 
were also threatened by the Dutch, who claimed the lands. 
The French also threatened from the north. In the year 
of the Pequot war (1637) the people of Connecticut sent 
a request to Massachusetts for the formation of a defensive 
union. This request was renewed in 1639 and again in 
1642. By that time the king and his Parliament were so 
deep in their quarrel that civil war seemed sure to come. 
In that case it would be wise for the colonies to be ready 
for defense, not only against the Indians, but against the 
Dutch and the French as well. The decision to unite 
came just in time to admit the new colony of New Haven 

(§84). 

The four colonies in the " United Colonies of New Eng- 
land " were Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, 
and New Haven. Their representatives met in Boston 
and in May, 1643, formed a written constitution, making a 
"league of friendship and amity for offense and defense." 
A federal commission of eight members, two from each 

114 



New England United 115 

colony, was provided. The commission was to elect a 
president from their own number, but he should have no 
other power than that of presiding officer. The board was 
to meet once a year, unless called together oftener by 
emergencies. All war expenses were to be levied against 
each colony according to its number of men and boys 
between sixteen and sixty years of age. In case the board 
could not agree on the business before it, the question at 
issue was to be sent around to the legislatures of the four 
colonies for decision. The colonies were to administer 
their own local affairs as before. 

104. Duration of the Confederation. — This union of the 
New England colonies was destined to last forty years, and 
part of that time it exercised great influence. It could not 
enforce its decrees, but the need of united effort gave it 
strength. Maine and Rhode Island tried to become mem- 
bers, but were refused. Rhode Island was too much mixed 
as to religious questions, and Gorges, the proprietor of 
Maine, was too much a friend of the king. Massachusetts 
had more people than the combined population of the three 
other colonies in the confederation. She naturally wanted 
more delegates on the board. Though denied in this, 
Massachusetts, from her size and importance, was the real 
leader. The union was disbanded in 1684. The people 
had learned many lessons about the strength of union and 
about the necessity of yielding some points where the good 
of all was in question. Those seeds would produce a good 
harvest later when a larger union was to be formed. 

105. Quakers preach in Boston. — The Puritans had a 
great dread of Quakers. In 1656 there was a day of fast- 
ing and prayer in Boston because news had come of the 
strange things done by Quakers in England. A few 



ii6 United States History for Schools 

months later Boston was amazed to learn that two women 
had come to town as Quaker missionaries. They were 
arrested, their books were burned, and they were kept in 
jail until the ship that brought them was ready to sail, when 
they were sent back to England. Others came. They 
were not frightened by having their ears cut off, by being 
branded with hot irons, or by being driven into the wilder- 
ness. They never resisted punishment. They stubbornly 
preached the gospel of the " inner Hght." Finally the 
Puritans seized four stubborn missionaries, one of whom 
was a woman, and hanged them on Boston Common. This 
was the climax. The king insisted on stopping such 
punishments, and many people in Boston also took sides 
against the ruling Puritans. From that time on toleration 
slowly won its way in the Puritan colonies. 

106. New Haven and Connecticut United. — The colony 
of Connecticut had bought the town of Saybrook (1644), 
and thus extended itself along the river to the sea. Later 
John Winthrop, Jr., was chosen governor of Connecticut. 
All the time of the civil war in England and during the 
time of the English Republic (i 649-1 660), the New Eng- 
land colonies were left very much to themselves. But 
when King Charles II. was crowned (1660) EngHsh in- 
terest in America was revived. King Charles thought he 
had good reasons for hating the two colonies of Massa- 
chusetts Bay and New Haven, The Massachusetts Bay 
colony had grown strong and stubborn. She became al- 
most defiant of the king. 

But New Haven had given another reason for royal dis- 
favor. She was hiding and protecting two men whom the 
king wanted to execute. When his father. King Charles 
I., was tried, condemned, and beheaded, the judges who 



New England United 117 

condemned him were called regicides, or king-killers. 
When the new king was crowned, two of these fled to New 
Haven. They were Goffe and Whalley. The officers of 
King Charles II. pursued them, but the minister of New 
Haven preached a sermon, taking his text from the Bible 
(Isaiah xvi. 3): "Hide the outcasts; betray not him that 
wandereth." The people understood the hint of the 
minister, and the regicides were hidden. 

Connecticut was in a position to reap a big advantage 
from this hatred toward her two nearest neighbors. She 
sent Governor Winthrop to England to get a charter. 
King Charles saw his chance to weaken the influence of 
Massachusetts by making Connecticut stronger. He could 
at the same time punish New Haven for screening the 
regicides. So he took away New Haven's independence 
by uniting that colony with Connecticut, and he then gave 
to the larger Connecticut a most favorable charter. So 
prized was that charter that Connecticut would not give it 
up, even after she became one of the United States, but 
kept it as her constitution until 18 18. 

107. How Massachusetts was Defiant. — When the union 
of the four New England colonies was made (1643), Massa- 
chusetts became the leading power in that union and was 
jealous of any power from England. As civil war broke 
out in the home country, the General Court of Massachu- 
setts decreed that any one raising troops for the king would 
be punished. 

Though Cromwell was a friend of the Puritans, Massa- 
chusetts boldly established a mint (1652), and for thirty 
years coined " pine-tree shillings." She was also haughty 
and refused when Cromwell's commissioners asked for 
troops in a proposed attack on the Dutch at New Amster- 



ii8 . United States History for Schools 

dam. However, she did consent to allow volunteers to be 
raised if any could be found. 

When Charles II. came to the throne, Massachusetts 
waited two years before proclaiming him king. Then 
Massachusetts saw she was bringing trouble upon herself 
and sent agents to arrange peace with the king. He sent 
back word that he wanted certain things done, and Massa- 
chusetts, fearing a threat at her liberties, complied in part. 
It was at this time that King Charles gave favorable 
charters to Connecticut and Rhode Island. 

108. King Philip's Indian War (1675). — Old Chief Mas- 
sasoit had faithfully kept the treaty he had made with the 
Pilgrim Fathers (§ 51). When he died, his son, known as 
King Philip, became Chief. He saw that his people would 
be destroyed if the white men were not driven away. He 
made a league with neighboring tribes and led them in an 
awful war that lasted two years. No quarter was asked or 
given on either side. Many white settlers were killed and 
scalped. But the war went against the Indians and their 
power was forever broken. That part of New England 
was never again troubled with Indian attacks. In this war 
the white men showed that they could be as cruel as the 
Indians. King Philip's wife and only son, a boy nine ' 
years of age, were among those captured and sold as slaves 
in South America. The Chief's heart was broken. He 
was ready to die. Shortly afterwards he was killed. His 
hands were cut off and sent to Boston, and his head was set 
up on a pole in Plymouth, where it remained for twenty 
years, a warning to other enemies. 

109. Massachusetts absorbs Other Colonies. — The at- 
tempts by Mason and Gorges to establish the proprietary 
colonies of New Hampshire and Maine did not succeed, and 



New England United 119 

we have seen how they were absorbed by Massachusetts 
(§ 85). But Massachusetts was not allowed to hold the 
lands in peace. The heirs of Mason and Gorges made 
trouble. Finally Massachusetts bought the Gorges claim 
(1677) for twelve hundred and fifty pounds, and managed 
the colony under the Gorges grant without making it a 
part of Massachusetts. 

In 1679 the king made New Hampshire a royal province, 
but when one of the governors, Edward Cranfield, became 
tyrannical, he was driven out of the colony (1685), and 
Massachusetts again absorbed it. Soon afterwards New 
Hampshire was once more made a royal province and re- 
mained so until the Revolution. 

110. Massachusetts loses her Charter (1684). — King 
Charles H. tried to keep down the power of Massachusetts 
by building up the strength of Connecticut (§ 106), but 
Massachusetts continued her defiance (§107), and when the 
king wished to conquer New Netherland (1664), in order 
to give the land to his brother James, Massachusetts refused 
to help. The king knew tha't the Puritans allowed no one 
to vote or hold office but members of their own churches. 
He knew they did not tolerate Church of England men. 
He was told they even planned independence. Finally his 
hatred reached a climax (1684) when he took away the 
colony's charter and made it a royal province. 

111. New England under Tyrant Andres. — King Charles 
II. died before he could establish a new royal government 
for Massachusetts. He was succeeded in 1685 by his 
brother, King James II. The new king was worse than 
his brother had been. He was an ardent Catholic and he 
hated Puritans and other sects. He loved and proposed to 
exercise absolute power as king. His brother had taken 



120 United States History for Schools 

away the charter of Massachusetts. He now proposed to 
take away those of Connecticut and Rhode Island so he 
could unite all of New England under one royal govern- 
ment. 

To accomplish his object, he sent over, as his repre- 
sentative, Sir Edmund Andros, who richly earned the 




Charter Oak. 



name of tyrant. Andros came to have the widest experi- 
ence as governor of any man in the history of America. 
He was governor of New England from 1686 to 1689, and 
part of that time he was also governor of New York and 
New Jersey, and later ( 1692) he was governor of Virginia. 
When he arrived in 1686, as governor of Massachusetts, 
Plymouth, New Hampshire, and Maine, he at once de- 



New England United 



121 



manded the charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut. 
Rhode Island obeyed, but Connecticut refused. Andros 
went to Hartford (1687) to get the charter, but it was hid- 
den in a hollow oak tree, ever after known as " Charter 
Oak." The loved old tree was blown down in 1856, and 
many pieces of it are still saved in Hartford for relics. An- 
dros could not get the 
charter, but he declared it 
dead and ordered the 
word Finis (end) on the 
record. He then pro- 
ceeded to govern the 
colony as its master. 

The next year (1688), 
the authority of Andros, 
was extended over New 
York and New Jersey. 
The despot now held sway 
from Delaware Bay to 
New France. Arbitrary 
taxes were levied ; land 
grants were annulled; 
private property was un- 
settled ; commons and 
parks were seized and 

given to the governor's friends ; Congregational churches 
were taken for Episcopalian services ; the legislatures were 
abolished. The town of Ipswich started a protest against 
the unjust taxation. Rev. John Wise was arrested for 
taking part. At his trial he was told : " Mr. Wise, you 
have no more privileges left you than not to be sold as 
slaves." 




Sir Edmund Andros. 



122 United States History for Schools 

112. Tyrant Andros in Jail. — The people of Old England 
did not like the tyranny of James II. any more than did 
the people of New England like that of his representative, 
Andros. The people of England drove the king from his 
throne in what they called the " Glorious Revolution," 
The news of this event reached New England in April, 
1689. Bells were ringing ; drums were beating ; fires were 
blazing on Beacon Hill ; rejoicing, as well as determination, 
was manifest everywhere. The tyrant was arrested and 
imprisoned. Connecticut brought her charter from its 
hiding place ; Rhode Island got her old charter back and 
was happy ; and in New York a tradesman seized power 
and held it for three years ( § 92). 

113. Massachusetts gets a New Charter. — Massachusetts, 
like Rhode Island, wanted her old charter restored, but in- 
stead of that she was given a new one in 169 1. In giving 
this new charter the government of William and Mary re- 
tained Massachusetts as a royal province, and under the 
one charter were grouped, as the new province of Massa- 
chusetts, the old Massachusetts Bay colony, Plymouth, 
Maine, and Arcadia. While the legislature was restored, 
the king was to appoint the governor, who was given the 
power to veto any laws he did not approve. The old rule 
that only church members could vote was abolished. All 
forms of religion were to be tolerated. All this was very 
different from the old Puritan government, but it was to re- 
main in that form down to the time of the Revolution. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. What colonies comprised "The United Colonies of New 
England" ? 

2. What were the best results of that confederation ? 



New England United 123 

3. What result came from Boston's punishment of Quakers ? 

4. How did the colony of New Haven lose its identity ? 

5. Show how Massachusetts defied the king. 

6. What was the cause and what the result of King Philip's Indian 
war ? 

7. What colonies did Massachusetts absorb ? 

8. How did Massachusetts become a royal province ? 

9. Show how Governor Andros was a tyrant. 

10. How did the new charter of Massachusetts differ from the old ? 



CHAPTER XII 

EXPANSION OF NEW FRANCE 

References. — Hart's Source Book, pp. 96-98 ; Robinson's Western 
Europe, pp. 495 "SOS- 

Home Readings. — McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. H., pp. 
1-15 (Joliet and Marquette), 16-53 (La Salle), 54-67 (Hennepin) ; 
Parkman's Struggle for a Continent. 

114. The Great Lakes Explored. — In the years between 
1607 and 1691 the English colonies had expanded up and 
down the Atlantic coast. New Sweden and New Nether- 
land had disappeared and had become the English crown 
colonies of Delaware and New York. Spain still held 
Florida, and France occupied the St. Lawrence. Between 
those points all was English. As New France was an 
ambitious and troublesome neighbor on the north, it is well 
to study now the expansion of the first colony planted by 
Champlain (§§ 40-43). 

The great fact to be remembered about this expansion 
of New France is the exploration westward around the 
Great Lakes to the Mississippi Valley. 

The discovery and exploration of the Great Lakes re- 
quired many years of hard work by strong and fearless 
men. The natural gateway to those lakes was closed to 
the Frenchmen by that battle with the Mohawk tribe of 
the Iroquois on Lake Champlain in 1609 (§ 41). To avoid 
those hostile Indians the French explorers turned from 
the upper St. Lawrence and traveled up the Ottawa 
River. It thus happened that Lake Huron was the first 

124 



Expansion of New France 125 

of the lakes discovered. Lake Ontario was the next dis- 
covered, Superior next, and then Lake Michigan. They 
had long heard of Lake Erie, but that was so near the 
homes of the Iroquois that it was the last one discovered. 
It was not navigated, except by a few Rangers of the 
Woods, until 1669. 

115. The French reach the Mississippi (1673). — 
Champlain, as governor of New France (1622-1635), en- 
couraged these explorations and the planting of new fur 
trading posts. His successors did likewise, and in the 
course of the work the explorers and traders heard of a 
great river in the West. In 1672 Father James Marquette 
and Louis J-oliet were sent out to search for the river. 
With five companions in two birch bark canoes they 
paddled up Lake Michigan to Green Bay. They entered 
the Fox River and went on to an Indian camp, where they 
learned of another small river that flowed into the large 
one. This new river they called the Wisconsin. They 
paddled down the Wisconsin until June 17, 1673, when 
they came out upon the great" Father of Waters." They 
paddled down the Mississippi, past the mouth of the Mis- 
souri, past the Ohio, and on near the mouth of the Arkan- 
sas, when they turned back. Though the great river had 
been discovered more than a hundred years before by De 
Soto (§ 28), this was in itself a wonderful discovery and 
meant much to the colonists of France. 

116. La Salle names Louisiana. — Five years were al- 
lowed to pass before the French king gave authority to 
Robert de la Salle to " discover the western part of New 
France." From 1678 he worked four years at the great 
task. From Green Bay he made his way to the Illinois 
River, and near the present city of Peoria, Illinois, built a 



126 United States History for Schools 



fort, which he named Crevecoeur (heartbreak) and left a 
companion in charge while he returned to Canada. Com- 
ing back, he found his companion and workmen gone. He 
spent a winter looking for them. Failing to find them, he 




Robert Chevalier de la Salle, 



resolutely set out on the Mississippi in February, 1682, 
while the river was full of floating trees and ice. With 
grim determination he kept on until he came to the waters 
of the Gulf of Mexico. He took possession of the whole 
region for King Louis XIV. of France, and in his honor 
he called the land Louisiana. In the meantime Father 



Expansion of New France 



127 



Hennepin had explored the upper Mississippi to the 
Falls of St. Anthony, where now stand St. Paul and 
Minneapolis. 

Two years later La Salle led a party by sea to colonize 
Louisiana. They missed the mouth of the iVIississippi 
and landed on the coast of Texas. Part of the little colony, 
surviving disease, was led by La Salle toward the Illinois 
River. Some of them reached that river, but the great 
leader was murdered on 
the way. 

117. The Chain of Forts. 
— The two greatest water 
highways to the interior 
of North America were 
then in the hands of the 
French. These were the 
St. Lawrence and the 
Great Lakes, and the 
Mississippi River. They 
tried to unite and hold 
these vast tracts of land 
by a chain of forts and 
trading posts, first around 
the Great Lakes and then 
down the Mississippi Val- 
ley. In 1695 Kaskaskia was built, Detroit, Vincennes, and 
others followed. Later New Orleans was built ( 1718) near 
the mouth of the Mississippi River. The weakness of the 
scheme was the effort to hold such large areas by such 
small and widely separated forts. 

118. French Colonial Government. — The French set- 
tlers apparently did not desire and certainly did not have 




King Louis XIV. oh Pr\nce. 



128 United States History for Schools 

any voice in their government, as was the case in the Eng- 
lish colonies. The French colonial government was pater- 
nal. They all looked to the king for authority and 
support. Louis XIV. would sometimes aid the colonies 
generously, and then for years he would neglect them. 

Where farming was carried on at all, it was done by 
habitants, or cultivators, who paid small rents to the seign- 
iors, or lords of large estates. The local government was 
in the hands of judges, priests, and captains of militia. 
The governor represented the king and exercised the 
greatest authority in the colony. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. How did the French explorers approach the Great Lakes ? 

2. In what order were the lakes discovered ? 

3. Show how the French explored the Mississippi River. 

4. How did the French propose to hold New France and Louisiana ? 

5. What kind of government did the French settlers have ? 



CHAPTER XIII 

HOME LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 104-124; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 74-95, 108-123. 

Home Readings. — Earle's Child Life in Colonial Days ; Earle's Home 
Life in Colonial Days ; Earle's Costume of Colonial Times ; Hart's 
Source Reader, Wil. L, 38-63, 91-130 (Indians), 152-155, 165-233; 
Irving's Sketch Book ; Scudder's Men and Manners One Hundred 
Years Ago. 

119. Colonial Boys and Girls. — From the time James II. 
was driven from the throne of England (1688) to the time 
France lost her possessions in America (1763) there were 
four colonial wars whose results were important. But 
however important those results were, the Hfe of the Eng- 
lish colonists and what they learned to think about and to 
do were of much greater importance. We will therefore 
turn our attention now to the experience of the colonists 
at home and in public. 

From Georgia to Maine there was almost every kind of 
boy and girl that can well be imagined. Their lives were 
as different as were the colonies founded by their fathers 
and mothers. In the sunny South the children had a gay 
time. On ponies of their own they rode over their fathers' 
plantations or, when safe from Indians, made journeys to 
other plantations. As babies they were cared for by 
negro " mammies " and later had great fun with little negro 
playmates. They enjoyed the Maypole and other dances. 
There were not many schools in the South, as the homes 
K 129 



ijo United States History for Schools 



were far apart, but the planter hired private tutors for his 
children or arranged with the clergyman to give them les- 
sons. As the boys grew to be young men, many of them 
were sent away to the schools and universities of England. 
The Puritans of New England were shocked at the ideas 
of dancing and frivolous gayety. But the New England 
children were not wholly deprived of fun. There was 
maple-sugar making in the early spring. In the summer 
y™™""i""i"i"'i I" 




rHK NKW ENGLAM) I'KIMEK. 



there were fishing and swimming ; in the fall nut-gather- 
ing ; in the winter skating and sleighing. There were 
fewer slaves in the North, but the white boys and girls 
often played with the children of friendly Indians. The 
children lived in towns and each town had its public school, 
which took up much more time of the boys and girls than 
was required by the tutors in the South. 

The men and women of the North worked much harder 



Home Life and Institutions 



3^ 



than .those of the South. The men cleared the forests for 
their fields, cut logs for houses, used the rifle to protect 
their homes and to get game for food. As soon as the 
boys were big enough, they had to help in this work. The 
women spun yarn and wove cloth. They often had great 
enjoyment at quilting bees, where the girls joined in the 



^5:=::= 



I o 



4- 






i^x-ii^C 



6- iV . i^ V 






vrx 



work that was made into play. 
Often the men, women, and chil- 
dren all joined in a rollicking good 
time at husking and barn-raising 
bees. 

Between these two groups of 
North and South were the Dutch 
children of New York, the Quaker 
children of Pennsylvania, and the 
Catholic children of Maryland. 
They had games and pastimes of 
their own, but these were not as gay 
as those in the South or as stern as 
those in the North. Schools were 
furnished for them at an early day, 
and from them, as from the other 
sections, grew up a splendid har- 
vest of patriotic men and women. 

120. The Colonial Home. — There was one thing that all 
the colonists experienced alike. When they first landed, 
they were in a wilderness, and the first thing they needed 
was shelter. The log-cabin home was in each case the 
beginning of the town or settlement. Each family brought 
some furniture, but not by any means enough. Benches 
and stools served for chairs. Tables in the cabins were 
hinged so they could be swung up to the roof and out of 




An Old Sampler. 



132 United States History for Schools 



the way when the meal was over. One daughter of a pio- 
neer has said : " Father drove some pegs in the logs behind 
the door. Those were for our wardrobe, but we didn't need 
many pegs, for we only had enough clothes for every day's 
wear." As those few clothes were worn out, the settlers, 
especially in the North, prepared clothes from deerskins, 
stitched with sinew, just like the Indians. 

Often plates were made of wood and 
cups of the hard shells of gourds. Light 
was furnished from the blazing logs on 
the big fireplace or by a rude lamp made 
from a cup filled with fish oil, from 
which dangled a sputtering wick of 
twisted rags. These gave place to 
candles when tallow could be obtained. 
They had no matches, and if the fire 
went out, one of the boys would be sent 
to borrow a few glowing embers from 
a neighbor. 

From year to year wealth increased 
and the homes improved. Good sub- 
stantial frame houses supplanted the log 
cabins, and in every community the more 
successful men built mansions. These were sometimes 
made of brick and stone. They were never gaudy ; they 
were just large, strong, and comfortable. These houses 
were so well built that now, two centuries later, many people 
admire the "colonial" style of architecture. Into these 
fine homes came many luxuries, such as beautifully carved 
furniture, clocks higher than a man's head, rare china and 
silver dishes, quaint candlesticks and solidly bound, well- 
printed books. 




Spinning Whekl. 



Home Life and Institutions 



133 



As the people became rich they disclosed the fact in 
those luxuries for the home, and also in their fancy and 
elaborate clothing. The men wore powdered wigs, velvet 
coats, knee breeches, silk stockings, and big silver buckles 




A Cui.oNiAL Mansion. 

on the shoes. Ladies wore dresses of velvet, silk, and 
satin. The old record tells of Dutch matrons in New 
York who wore eight fine dresses, one over the other, so 
everybody could see at once that they had lots of good 
clothes. 

121. The Colonial Church. — There were all kinds of 
churches and creeds in the colonies. They varied greatly 
in strictness, but the Sabbath was everywhere well ob- 
served. The strictest church goers were in New England. 
The churches were often far from comfortable. In the 
winter there was no heat unless the worshiper brought a 
heated stone or a little tin box containing a charcoal fire. 
If one drowsed in warm summer weather, he would receive 



134 United States History for Schools 

a thump on the head from a long pole in the hands of one 
of the officers. But whatever the creed, the colonist had 
great respect for his church, and the minister of each com- 
munity was always looked up to as the intellectual, as well 
as the religious, leader. 

122. The Colonial College. — The ministry was the one 
profession that fond parents wished their boys to enter. 
It was late in the colonial period when law and medicine 
won respectable standing in the estimation of the colonists. 
Colleges were needed, therefore, to train ministers that a 
true knowledge of the Gospel " might not perish from our 
midst." The first college established was Harvard (1636) 
in Cambridge (§ 80). The second was in Virginia (1693), 
the College of William and Mary, whose graduates have 
numbered thousands, including many famous men. The 
third was Yale (1701), established by Connecticut because 
Harvard had grown too lax to please the stricter Puritans. 
After a lapse of nearly half a century, there sprang up a 
number of colleges until every Northern colony had at least 
one. These were Princeton (1746) in New Jersey; King's 
(1754), now Columbia, in New York; University of Penn- 
sylvania (1755) in Philadelphia; Brown (1764) in Provi- 
dence; Dartmouth ( 1 769) in New Hampshire; and Queen's 
(now Rutgers) (1770) in New Jersey. 

Although the colonists everywhere struggled for the 
principles of self-government, they had not developed the 
idea of equality. In the churches the best pews were 
held by the most influential families. A similar case was 
seen in those colonial colleges. When John Adams grad- 
uated from Harvard (1744), his name appeared as number 
fourteen in a class of twenty-four. If the alphabetical ar- 
rangement had been used, his name would probably head 



Home Life and Institutions 135 

the list, as it begins with A. No one then dreamed he 
was going to be the President of the United States; his 
family was not as influential as others, and so his name 
was placed more than halfway toward the foot of the 
list. 

The studies in those colleges were not nearly as numer- 
ous, nor as difficult, as those in the American high schools 
of to-day, and yet they iitted hundreds and, in time, thou- 
sands of young men for successful and brilliant careers as 
statesmen, lawyers, doctors, ministers, teachers, and busi- 
ness men. 

123. Means of Travel. — The slender trails through the 
woods used by Indians or wild animals were the first high- 
ways for the colonists, who used them, as the Indians had 
done, in quest of food and furs. These trails developed 
into bridle paths and later into roads. But the colonial 
roads were wretched, and the rich man's "coach and six" . 
often needed the si.x horses to pull the heavy coach through 
the mud. Most of the towns were on rivers or bays. To 
them boats were the favorite means of travel. The early 
settlers of Maryland depended upon Chesapeake Bay for 
a way to visit each other. One of them complained that 
they were shut off from their neighbors by storms, and all 
they had to eat for a season were terrapins, oysters, and 
canvasback ducks ! 

124. Business in the Colonies. — There was very little 
manufacturing in the South. All the labor, slave and free, 
was needed to care for the valuable crops of tobacco, rice, 
and indigo. It was a great and joyous day when the ship 
came to the planter's wharf. There was unloaded an 
abundance of all kinds of goods needed for the year, and 
as soon as these were unloaded, the return cargo of farm 



136 United States History for Schools 



products was loaded. So much was the labor needed for 
the crops that the planter imported from England even the 
coarse stable brooms that any Yankee boy could have 
made. 

In Pennsylvania some ships were built, some fur trade 
was carried on, but the principal business was the raising 
and grinding of grain. In New York the fur trade was 
the greatest source of wealth. 

In New England much yarn and cloth was made, but 
always in the homes instead of in fac- 
tories, as at present. New England 
was also the greatest builder of ships, 
and this meant many trained carpen- 
ters, ropemakers, and sailmakers. It 
was folly to build ships unless they 
could be used, and their use made com- 
merce. This commerce provided labor 
for many people and produced wealth 
for many merchants. The greatest 
item in this commerce was fish. Car- 
goes of codfish were sent every year 
to England. In the State House in 
Boston at the present day there hangs 
the figure of a large codfish, the symbol 
of the Commonwealth's first commercial 
success. The colonials also sent out ships on whaling 
cruises, which were profitable. Often the captain would sell 
his ship as well as his cargo and then return to build another 
in New England. The world would now condemn one 
branch of profitable trade, though it was considered proper 
enough in that time. A captain would get a cargo of sugar 
and molasses in the West Indies, which he would take to 




Pine-tki:e Shilling. 



Home Life and Institutions 137 

New England. There it would be made into rum. He 
would take the rum to Africa and exchange it for slaves. 
These slaves he would sell in the West Indies and buy 
more sugar and molasses. Of course, big profits were made 
at each point of this triangular commerce. 

125. Pirates and Smugglers. — Pirates flourished in that 
day. It was too often deemed right for a ship of one na- 
tion to rob and plunder a ship under another flag. This 
developed boldness and reckless disregard for law, so that 
wicked men did not care what flag a ship carried so long 
as they could get riches for themselves. Murder was 
added to robbery, and pirates became a great dread to the 
American sailors. 

When King William sent the Earl of Bellamont to be 
governor (1695) he told him that piracy had become a dis- 
grace to the colonies. " I send you, my Lord, to New 
York," said the king, " because an honest and intrepid man 
is wanted to put down these abuses, and because I believe 
you to be such a man." The governor sent Captain 
William Kidd to punish the pirates, but he became the 
worst pirate of them all and was after- 
wards arrested and hanged. 

Smugglers were by no means as bad 
as the pirates. In fact, many very good 
people were smugglers. England's 
Navigation Laws were thought to be 
very unfair. As the colonists had 
no representative in Parliament, where ^'"'' ^™^'^^- 

those laws were made, they thought the only way open to 
them was to disobey or avoid the laws. In that way they 
became smugglers. 

126. Punishment of Criminals. — Smugglers were usually 





138 United States History for Schools 

screened by their neighbors, for all hated the Navigation 
Laws; but pirates and others were severely punished. We 
have seen how Penn's government decreed that only mur- 
der and treason were to be punished by 
death (§ loi). In other colonies there 
were a dozen crimes for which men, 
when convicted, were hanged. For 
other crimes the officers used the cruel 
pillory, stocks, branding iron, and duck- 
ing stool. All these punishments were 
inflicted in public places so all could see 
and know the disgraced wrongdoer. It 
must have had a miserable effect on the 
colonial children when allowed to wit- 
ness such spectacles. The good example of William Penn 
treating prisoners humanely has long since been followed 
throughout the United States. 

127. The Witchcraft Craze (1692). — It seems incredible 
that such brave and independent people as the colonists 
would allow themselves to be worked up to a frenzy over 
such a strange belief as that in witches, but such a thing 
really happened. In Salem a witch craze broke out. It 
was only necessary for some one to suspect another of 
being a witch to start a trial. Many innocent people, so 
suspected, were thrown into prison, and before the frenzy 
died away, nineteen were condemned and hanged as 
witches. 

128. Number and Kinds of People. — In 1700 the popu- 
lation of the English colonies numbered about 250,000. 
In half a century, up to 1750, the number had increased 
to about 1,370,000. The great majority of these people 
were English, but, of course, there were still many Dutch 



Home Life and Institutions 139 

in New York, and some Swedes had remained in Delaware, 
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. There were Scotch-Irish 
and Scotch Highlanders in the mountains of Pennsylvania 
and South Carolina. There were Huguenots, especially in 
the South, and a few Irish and Jews. During the struggles 
of Frederick the Great of Prussia against Austria for the 
leadership of the Germans a large number of Germans 
came to America. Some of them settled in the Hudson 
and Mohawk valleys of New York, but more still settled in 
Pennsylvania. Some of their descendants are now wrongly 
called " Pennsylvania Dutch." The population at that 
time included more than 200,000 negro slaves. 

The largest cities in 1750 were Boston, Philadelphia, 
New York, Baltimore, and Charleston. But the people 
had not crowded into cities, as they have since done. They 
had built towns and hamlets along the banks of most of 
the rivers flowing into the Atlantic, and all of their settle- 
ments lay between the mountains and the sea. 

In 1750 the English government decided that the 
colonies were getting too strong and independent. It is 
important to note that just as they decided to try to make 
the colonies obey the Navigation Laws and bear some part 
of the government's expenses, the people of the colonies 
began to cross the mountains and build their first homes 
in what was then the " Far West." Those Western settle- 
ments had a considerable part in colonial struggles, and 
subsequently the line of the " Far West," or the frontier, 
was gradually extended until it reached the Pacific Ocean. 

129. Slaves and their Treatment. — Every civilized nation 
now looks upon slavery, the ownership or traffic in human 
beings, as a wrong and hateful thing. But in the time of 
the colonies and for long years afterwards such was not 




140 United States History for Schools 

the case. When the moral law awakened consciences to 
the idea that slavery was wrong, men were found who 

SIMON SHURLOCK: 
iv. 6, All mafters of vefTch, and others, are forbid to 
carry them, or either of them, awa;, as the/ iliali anfwec 
it at their peril. 

^SS^ Ran away, on the firft of 

M.Tch inft. fioiTi ihe I'ubicribfr, «n Ti- 

njcuni Kldnil, in Cheftcr county, an Irifn 

fervsnt l^d, about 16 years old, iiauKni | 

Jofeph MulJin, about five ffCt high, 

^lort brown hair, black eyes, thin face, 

dowi) look, and has but very little to 

fay J by his bfhaviour he may be taken 

for a fool— Jiad on when he vtjnt ;'.wdy, an oKI blanket coat, 

an<l homelpun brov«n cloih jacket, wiih a retl lining, gretn 

troufers, with patches on the knees, white yarn ftockings, 

h.^lt worn fhoes, with firings in them, and an old floj^ip'd 

hat. Whoever will bring hun home, Ih.iU receive Tixenfy 

Sbiilings reward, and all rcafoiiablc chxrg^s paid, by 

Jofeph Penrofe. jb 
RUN away from the fub- d 

fciibtr, in Saffafras Neck, Cecil Coun- 
ty, MtryUnd, a fervant nnan named i 
Jofeph Edwards. He was bom in Entj- i 
l.jnd, pretends to hare been bred up xo 1 
the care of horfes, and to underitand the 
nianr'gcnicnt and breaking of cohs, is a 
atfi^Sf^^ talkative impertinent fellow, about 10 
years of ape. well fet, fwarthy comDlrxi/-"" '" " 

Advertisement for Runaway Slaves. 

spoke out earnestly among the Puritans of New England, 
the Quakers of Pennsylvania, and the leaders of the South. 
But before different opinions of moral law divided the 
North and South on this question, the law of nature had 




Home Life and Institutions 141 

produced a very different condition in the two sections in 
regard to slavery. 

By far the greater number of slaves were in the South. 
In some of the Southern colonies the slaves were more 
numerous than the white people. Here the soil was deep 
and fertile and the climate was sunny and warm, just the 
right conditions for such crops as tobacco, rice, indigo, and, 
later, cotton. Those crops and those conditions were 
about perfect for the profitable employment of many 
slaves. They were housed in rows of cabins, and there is 
abundant evidence that with banjo, songs, dances, and 
games they managed to mix much joy with their hard 
work. 

In the North the soil was not so fertile and the climate 
was much colder. The crops were not such as could use 
profitably large numbers of slaves. In those colonies the 
slaves were mostly all servants about the house. Instances 
are known of poor farmers sitting at table with their few 
domestic slaves. The slaves were allowed to go to church, 
but in such cases they were required to sit in the high gal- 
leries built for them. To this day the highest galleries in 
some theaters are referred to as " Nigger Heaven." 

Many stories are told of the cruel treatment of slaves, 
but, unfortunately, the stories of kindness and of the 
friendly relations between master and slave are not so often 
related. While there were countless cases of such kindly 
relations, the white people, especially where the slaves 
were numerous, had an awful dread of slave uprisings. 
This gave rise to many harsh laws, allowing runaway slaves 
to be killed, or if caught, to be punished at public expense 
and then to be returned to their owners. A slave's word 
was not taken in court against a white man, nor could a 



142 United States History for Schools 

white man be punished for killing a negro, though he could 
be fined if the negro killed belonged to some one else. 

130. Local Government in the Colonies. — We have seen 
(§ 118) that the settlers in New France had no voice in 
local government. In the English colonies the opposite 
was true. They were everywhere restless of restraint in 
such matters until they got full control. The New Eng- 
land town was the most democratic unit, for there all the 
voters met, levied taxes, elected officers, and gave them 
instructions. The " town " in that case was more than 
a collection of houses. It took in also the neighboring 
country, and the whole was known as " township." Later 
townships were grouped in counties, but the old town meet- 
ings were great training places for men who were to con- 
duct public business. 

In South Carolina the parish was the unit of local gov- 
ernment, and it was not until after the Civil War that this 
plan was given up for the county plan. The parish exer- 
cised about the same powers as the township in New Eng- 
land. To-day the local government of Louisiana is called 
" parish," but this is only another name for " county." 
In Virginia the local unit was the county. It is true that 
there the counties were divided into parishes, but the parish 
officers had little to do except to look after the affairs of 
the church. 

In New York and Pennsylvania the county was the unit, 
and Pennsylvania has the credit of leading in what has 
since become the plan in nearly every one of the United 
States. There all the voters voted for three commissioners, 
who conducted the important business of the county. 

131. General Government in the Colonies. — The gen- 
eral governments of the colonies were alike in some re- 



Home Life and Institutions 143 

spects. The people chose the members of the lower and 
more important house of the legislatures. The supreme 
court consisted of the governor and his council or assist- 
ants. In the manner of securing the governor is seen the 
chief difference in the colonial governments of 1750. Con- 
necticut and Rhode Island retained their old charters, and 
there the governors were elected by the people. Massa- 
chusetts got a new charter in 1691 (§ 113). Under it the 
governor was appointed by the king. Maryland and 
Pennsylvania remained the property of the heirs of Lord 
Baltimore and William Penn, and there the governors were 
appointed by the proprietors. The governors of all the 
other colonies were appointed by the king. 

As the royal representative the governor was often op- 
posed by the colonial assemblies. This opposition kept 
alive the spirit of independence. 

The colonial judges were appointed by the governors 
and were beyond any control by the assemblies or legisla- 
tures except through their pay. Angry legislatures would 
sometimes reduce or withhold the judges' salaries in an 
effort to influence them. 

132. Who were Voters. — The right to vote was very 
much limited in the colonies. At first there was the re- 
striction in Massachusetts that no one but a church mem- 
ber could vote. As the sects increased in number and 
power that restriction broke down. With toleration came 
a freer suffrage. But in every colony the right to vote 
was restricted to those who owned land. In some colonies 
the ownership of a large amount of land was necessary to 
allow that privilege. While it was not a difficult matter 
to acquire land where there was so much of it to be had, 
still the restrictions kept many people from the right to vote. 



144 United States History for Schools 

133. Origin of Colonial Institutions. — The idea of a proper 
government and the citizen's riglit to participate in it may 
be said to constitute the origin of the colonial institutions 
which developed into the American government. That 
idea can be traced back to England. For centuries Eng- 
lishmen had been struggling for liberties and greater par- 
ticipation in government. They had grown accustomed to 
a government of king, Lords, and Commons. They found 
that by increasing the power of the House of Commons they 
increased their own part in the government and made their 
liberties more secure. The assemblies were the colonists' 
House of Commons. In every colony there was a struggle 
which continued until the assembly was secured. 

In England there had been experience with town, parish, 
and county units of local governments before those units 
were tried in America. 

There are two notable additions that should be made to 
this explanation. The Puritans of New England tried to 
found a government like that of the ancient Hebrews as 
set forth in the Scriptures, and the free institutions of 
Holland also had their influence. The Pilgrims knew 
of those Dutch institutions, for they had lived under them 
just before coming to Plymouth. Those Dutch institu- 
tions were also well known, of course, to the settlers of 
New York. 

The colonists, by opposition to the harsh or overbearing 
governors, increased and kept more secure the liberties of 
the people. That opposition was similar to the opposition 
in England when the people beheaded King Charles I. 
(1649) and drove King James II. from his throne (1688). 
Out of these contentions grew the idea of electing the gov- 
ernor and holding him responsible to the people. 



Home Life and Institutions 145 



STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Tell how the boys and girls worked and played in the three 
groups of colonies. 

2. What kind of houses did the colonists build at first ? how were 
these improved later ? 

3. Name some colonial luxuries. 

4. What did the colonists think of their churches ? 

5. Show how the colonists favored education. 

6. What were the means of travel ? 

7. Describe the kinds of business that occupied the colonists. 

8. What was the colonial attitude toward pirates ? toward smugglers ? 

9. What leader helped to change the cruel forms of punishment of 
criminals? and how did he do so ? 

10. How were the "witches" punished ? 

11. Name the different kinds of peoples in the colonies. 

12. How did the colonists treat their slaves ? 

13. Describe the form of local governments in each of the three 
groups of colonies. 

14. State the three ways in which colonial governors secured their 
offices. 

15. How was voting restricted ? 

16. Where did the colonists get their ideas of government and insti- 
tutions .'' 



CHAPTER XIV 

STRUGGLE FOR THE MASTERY IN NORTH AMERICA 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 95-101 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 98-107, 124-136; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 506-508, 
518-536. 

Home Readings. — Cooper's Last of the Mohicans, and Satanstoe; 
Hart's Source Reader, Vol. II., pp. 1-150; Henty's With Wolfe in 
Canada ; Longfellow's Evangeline ; McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, 
Vol. I., pp. 227-261 (George Washington) ; Parkman's Conspiracy of 
Pontiac ; Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe ; Sewall's A Virginia Cava- 
lier. 

134. Reasons for the Struggle. — The English colonies, 
stretching from Maine to Georgia, had been gaining in 
strength and had been developing rapidly their institutions 
of government, their business, and culture. The French 
colonies had been expanded in a loose way over vast areas 
(§§114-118). It would have been natural to expect con- 
^flicts between the two peoples in the wild lands through 
jealousy and disputes over boundaries, but the conflicts 
really arose through troubles in Europe rather than in 
America. 

France and England had been enemies and rivals in 
Europe for centuries. As their colonies increased in 
America each power wished to outdo or to hinder the 
other. Control of the trade in fish and furs was the great 
desire. It so happened that when war broke out in Europe, 
part of the fighting was done in America. 

Strange as it may seem, there is one sense in which the 
weaker of the two powers in America was really the 

146 



Struggle for the Mastery in North America 147 

stronger. New France had much fewer men, but they 
were all under the command of the governor and his officers. 
There were no colonial assemblies to interfere. The full 
force of New France could be brought into use at once. 
In the EngHsh colonies it was different. There were 
colonial assemblies everywhere. Often one colony was 
anxious to fight, while the others held off; and it was against 
the religion of the Quakers to fight at all. Thus the 
stronger of the two powers would use only part of its men, 
while the weaker power could easily use all its strength. 

135. King William's War. — When James II. was driven 
from his throne ( 1688), he fled to France and was welcomed 
by King Louis XIV., who undertook to get for him the 
lost crown and made it one of his grounds for fighting 
England. King William's government declared war against 
France. This war in Europe was called the Palatinate War, 
and the enemies of France were Great Britain, Holland, 
Spain, and the Empire. The war lasted eight years and 
was ended by the Treaty of Ryswick (1697). 

In America, at the beginning of the war, Governor 
Frontenac of New France sent an .expedition of French 
troops and Indians to attack the settlements in the coveted 
Hudson River country. On a winter's night they fell upon 
the village of Schenectady, New York, and burned it, kill- 
ing most of the inhabitants. The Iroquois were still ene- 
mies of the French, but other Indians were friendly. With 
their help the French next destroyed Salmon Falls and 
Exeter in New Hampshire and Fort Loyal, where Portland, 
Maine, now stands. 

The colonies of New England and New York, aroused 
over these bold attacks, held a meeting of delegates in 
New York. It was decided to attack New France at her 



148 United States History for Schools 

three strongest points, — Port Royal in Acadia, Quebec, 
and Montreal. Port Royal was taken by a fleet of colonials 
in command of Sir William Phips, but was lost again the 
next year. The expeditions by land and sea against Quebec 
and Montreal were failures. 

Governor Frontenac's French and Indians continued to 
burn villages and kill settlers for seven more years until 
the war was ended by the treaty signed in Europe. 

136. Queen Anne's War. — The Treaty of Ryswick was 
soon broken through more complications that arose in 
Europe. Louis XIV., still afflicted with earth hunger and 
power greed, wanted to annex Spain to France. King 
Charles II. of Spain had no heirs. Through French in- 
fluence he was persuaded to will the crown of Spain to the 
grandson of King Louis XIV. and to that king himself was 
willed the Spanish Netherlands. As James II., the exiled 
king of England, died at the same time, the king of 
France at once proclaimed the dead exile's son as the 
rightful king of England. The war that resulted from 
these causes lasted from 1701 to 171 3. It was called, in 
Europe, the War of the Spanish Succession. King Wil- 
liam died in 1702 and was succeeded by Queen Anne. As 
her government continued the war, it was called, in Amer- 
ica, Queen Anne's War. 

Again the colonies experienced the terrors of the Indian's 
war whoops, the firebrand, and the scalping knife. But this 
time the English colonies made conquests which they were 
able to hold. They failed in an attack on Quebec, but they 
once more captured Port Royal (1710), and when the war 
was ended again in Europe by the Treaty of Utrecht (171 3), 
the French acknowledged the English ownership of Acadia, 
Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay region. The English 



Struggle for the Mastery In North America 149 

then changed the name of Acadia to Nova Scotia, and Port 
Royal was rechristened Annapolis, in honor of Queen Anne. 

137. Hudson Bay Company. — The acknowledgment by 
France that England owned the Hudson Bay region calls 
attention to the fact that the English had settlements in 
that remote part of the earth lying north of New France. 
In 1670 King Charles II. had given to his cousin Prince 
Rupert and others a favorable charter allowing the " Gov- 
ernor and Company of Adventurers of England Trading 
into Hudson Bay" (Hudson Bay Company) great pow- 
ers in that wild land. The French opposed those hardy 
traders and continued to do so after the Treaty of Utrecht, 
but even so the fur trade was profitable. After the com- 
pany was nearly one hundred years old, it began to extend 
its forts across the continent, becoming a strong factor 
as far as the Pacific Northwest. 

138. Thirty Years of Peace. — At the end of Queen 
Anne's War (§ 136) the English colonies entered upon a 
long period of much needed peace and rest. Though they 
had gained Nova Scotia and Newfoundland by conquest, 
they had suffered terribly along the frontiers. Heaps of 
ashes, where once had stood prosperous villages, rude graves 
filled with bodies mutilated by savage Indians, were not 
the only relics of those cruel years of war. Nearly every 
community of New York and New England had dismal 
reUcs in the form of wrecked homes. There were hundreds 
of widows and thousands of orphans who, while grieving 
over the death of fathers, husbands, and older brothers 
killed in the war, were suffering for food and clothing. It 
would call for courage and hard work during the years of 
peace to overcome the real damages of war. 

The colonies were not ready to push their frontier over 



150 United States History for Schools 

the Appalachian Range into the Western lands. A begin- 
ning of that kind would be made a few years after this rest 
of thirty years of peace. 

The French had lost many soldiers and Indians during 
the war, but they had not suffered through the loss of homes 
and villages as had the English colonists. The French 
use of Indian allies taught the English useful lessons. 
They began to make better friends of the Iroquois, who 
were old enemies of the French (§ 41). Just at the end of 
Queen Anne's War (171 3) the Southern kinsmen of the 
Iroquois, the Tuscaroras, moved north, and the Iroquois be- 
came the Six Nations instead of the Five Nations, as before. 
A commission was appointed to treat with these Indians and 
in 1744 the governor of New York appointed Sir William 
Johnson to be colonel of the Six Nations. Johnson proved 
a most remarkable man among Indians. While managing 
his uncle's estate in the Mohawk Valley he had learned 
the Indian language, he often dressed in Indian style, 
and became the Indian's friend. When representing the 
government he told the Indians he had come to "dry up 
their tears," to ""clear the roads grown up with weeds," 
and to set up " fine shady trees almost blown down by 
winds from the north." By such words the Iroquois readily 
understood that he meant to repair the damages done them 
by the French and Indian enemies. On the other hand, 
the French sent agents among the Iroquois, who told them to 
look about them and see the difference between the French 
and English. The French only built little forts or mission 
cabins in the woods. The Indian's hunting was not dis- 
turbed. But the English built towns and cut down the 
woods to make room for farms. When the English came, 
the Indians had to travel far away for game. This was a 



Struggle for the Mastery in North America 151 

true and strong argument, but still Johnson was able to 
hold the Iroquois as friends of the English. 

139. The Peace in Canada and Louisiana. — The French 
colonial policy in America during this peace reveals three 
principal ideas. In the first place no plan must be over- 
looked that would help the French to get possession of the 
Mohawk and Hudson valleys. This was one reason why 
they tried to win the friendship of the Iroquois. 

In the second place they proposed to keep the English 
on the east of the Appalachian Range and to hold the 
Ohio and Mississippi valleys for themselves. They built 
New Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi (171 8) and 
they built other towns and many forts along the river 
and around the Great Lakes. The people of France, 
led by a wonderful Scotchman named John Law, who 
had become a banker in Paris, went wild over speculations 
on the supposed wealth of Louisiana. Law's great scheme 
failed and was afterward referred to as the " Mississippi 
Bubble." But the scheme sent thousands of Frenchmen 
into Louisiana. 

The third principal idea was the plan to recover the 
lost Acadia, or Nova Scotia as the Englishmen called it. 
To do this the French picked out Cape Breton Island 
and on it built the fort called Louisburg. It was made 
of stone and was so strong that the French boasted that 
it could be defended by a garrison of women. 

140. The Peace in Europe. — As the wars in America 
had started from wars in Europe, so the thirty years' 
peace in America resulted from peace in Europe. The 
principal reason for peace in Europe was the removal 
of the greedy king of France, for Louis XIV. died in 
171 5, after the exceedingly long reign of seventy-two 



152 United States History for Schools 

years. He had lived and ruled so long that his son and 
grandson had both died, and he was succeeded on the 
throne by his great-grandson, who ruled as Louis XV. 
The new king was weak and frivolous compared with 
his great ancestor. He left government problems to his 
favorites and courtiers, while he indulged in luxury and 
vice. When his country began to lose the power built 
up by Louis XIV., this unkingly ruler exclaimed, " France 
will last long enough for me." 

England had become Great Britain by the Act of Union 
(1707), bringing England and Scotland under the one 
government. She needed the peace and made much of 
it. The year after Queen Anne's War ended, the queen 
died (1714) and, leaving no children of her own, she was 
succeeded by her cousin George, the Elector of Hanover. 
This new king, George L, was an honest and industrious 
king, but he loved most his German people in Hanover. 
He could not speak the English language, cared little 
for British affairs and relied upon his ministers. The 
king's son was much like his father in these matters. 
He came to the throne in 1727 and ruled until 1760. 
During these two reigns the powerful ministers, led by 
Robert Walpole, used the precious years of peace and 
of indifferent rulers to increase the power of the people 
in their government by establishing the Cabinet and 
by making the government depend mainly upon the 
House of Commons, or the people's representatives. The 
winning of t^ese powers and liberties for the people 
were greater victories than conquering cities or nations. 
The Englishmen in America were still citizens of Great 
Britain, and they rejoiced over these victories of the people 
in the "home " country, while they were building up freer 
institutions of their own in the colonies. 



Struggle for the Mastery in North America 153 

The long peace in Europe, though disturbed by a few- 
little conflicts, was finally ended by the removal of two 
German rulers, who died in the same year (1740). Em- 
peror Charles VI., who was also ruler of Austria, had no 
son to succeed him. Knowing he was about to die, he got 
consent from all the rulers of Europe to make an exception 
to the law and allow his daughter, Maria Theresa, to suc- 
ceed him as ruler of Austria. 

One king who gave his consent was the curious monarch 
of Prussia. His hobby was to hire the tallest men he could 
find anywhere in the world to recruit his army. When he 
died (1740), he left one of the finest armies in the world and 
a full treasury to his son, who became King Frederick II., 
later known as King Frederick the Great of Prussia. The 
territories tributary to Prussia were then so scattered that 
Voltaire called F'rederick " King of the Borders." King 
F^rederick did not like that name or the condition that gave 
rise to it. Austria and Prussia were rivals for German 
leadership. King Frederick, seeing Austria under the rule 
of a girl twenty-three years of age, seized Silesia, a part of 
her dominions. This incited other nations to seek parts of 
the young queen's lands. Maria Theresa lost some lands, 
but she manifested great talents in saving her throne and 
most of her wide dominion in Europe. When France, the 
old enemy of England, took sides against Austria, it was not 
long before Great Britain was drawn into the war on the 
side of Queen Maria Theresa. This is known as the War 
of the Austrian Succession. 

141. King George's War (1744-1748). — When Great 
Britain entered the conflict in Europe against France, it was 
taken as the signal for war in America. Here the struggle 
was called King George's War, as King George II. was 



154 United States History for Schools 

then on the throne. This war was important on account 
of one event. The great fortress at Louisburg was captured 
(1745). Colonel William Pepperrell of Maine gathered a 
little army of New England farmers and fishermen for the 
task. Benjamin Franklin wrote his brother that he was 
afraid Louisburg was too hard a nut for their teeth to crack. 
But with the aid of a British fleet the army did capture 
the stronghold. New England was elated over the great 
news, and King George in his joy over it made Pepperrell a 
baronet. 

The war was ended (1748) by a treaty signed in Eu- 
rope. When the news of peace reached America, the New 
Englanders were disgusted to learn that the terms of the 
treaty included a surrender of Louisburg to the French, 
The colonists could not appreciate the difficulties that con- 
fronted the home government. The war between France 
and Great Britain had been extended to India as well as 
to America. The French had captured important British 
posts in India. In making the treaty it was decided that 
each side should give up its conquests. France got back 
her Fort Louisburg, but she would never again boast that 
it could be defended by a garrison of women. 

142. Pause before the Last Grapple. — Only a short 
period of six years of peace followed King George's War, 
but those were very important years. France and Great 
Britain were rivals in Europe, in India, and in America. 
Each power was ambitious for great colonial possessions. 
Each power took greater interest in the American colonies, 
and each power knew those colonies were sure to come into 
collision. Both began active work in America as soon as 
peace was restored. 

The time had come for the British colonists to cross the 



Struggle for the Mastery in North America 155 

mountains and secure possession in the West if they wished 
to compete with the French for those lands. The first 
settlement was made on the banks of the Kanawha (1748), 
and the next year the Ohio Company was organized by 
wealthy and influential Virginians. King George, willing 
to favor such a move, granted the new company five hun- 
dred thousand acres on the Ohio River. The company 
agreed to place one hundred families on the land and to 
maintain a fort there. 

The French with their chain of forts had control of the 
Mississippi Valley from the Gulf to the Great Lakes, but 
the Ohio Valley, which was looked upon as a part of the 
great Mississippi Valley, remained unoccupied and unpos- 
sessed. The French at once sought to secure the Ohio 
Valley. The governor sent Celoron de Bienville to take 
possession. With a band of men and a flotilla of twenty- 
three birch-bark canoes de Bienville made his way from 
Canada by the lakes, rivers, and portages to the Allegheny 
River. Here, with great ceremony, he proclaimed Louis 
XV. to be king over the land. As evidence of what he 
had done he buried a plate of lead on which the facts had 
been carved. He repeated this ceremony several times 
along the Allegheny and the Ohio rivers. Many years 
afterwards some of these interesting plates of lead were 
found by American boys while playing on the river banks. 

143. Three New French Forts. — The Canadians would 
have been more prompt to follow up those ceremonies of 
possession if it had not been necessary to get orders from 
the king of France. The orders came and a start was 
made in 1752. Where the present city of Erie stands, a 
log fort was built called Fort Presque Isle. From there a 
road was built for a distance of twenty miles, and the next 



156 United States History for Schools 




From the Painting by ('. w I'talc 

Earliest Known Portrait ok WAbHiNoroN. 



Struggle for the Mastery in North America 157 

fort was built and called Fort Le Boeuf. It was the site 
of the present Waterford. The third fort, called Fort 
Venango, was on the site of the j3resent Franklin. This 
was certainly an earnest effort to follow up the line of those 
lead plates. 

144. Virginia sends a Warning to the French. — Those 
French forts were in western Pennsylvania. That colony 
ought to have been alarmed, but the peaceful Quakers were 
not looking for trouble. The other colonies were not as 
yet much disturbed over such transactions beyond the 
mountains, although one colony, Virginia, was ready and 
anxious to stop the French advance. Virginia had a sort 
of claim to those western and northwestern lands based on 
her old charter of 1609 (§ 56). Besides, Governor Dinwid- 
dle and his friends had obtained that big grant of land for 
their new Ohio Company. The governor decided to send 
a message to those French fort builders to keep back 
(1753)- To carry that message over the mountains, 
through the wilderness, through haunts of hostile Indians, 
the governor selected a young surveyor named George 
Washington, who was then twenty-one years of age. With 
a few guides Washington made the journey and delivered 
the letter to the French officer at Fort Venango. He was 
treated courteously by the ofificer, who said the letter would 
be sent to the governor of Canada, but he would continue 
to hold the fort. 

145. *' Gateway of the West." — When Washington took 
the reply of the French officer to Virginia, the Ohio Com- 
pany decided on a race to secure the point where the Alle- 
gheny and the Monongahela rivers join to form the Ohio 
River. That point, called the " Gateway of the West," 
would be most important to whichever side could hold it. 



158 United States History for Schools 

The British won the race and started a fort, but the French 
came in large enough numbers to drive them away. The 
French then completed the fort and called it Fort Duquesne, 
in honor of Governor Duquesne of Canada (1754). 

The Ohio Company had obtained the help of the Vir- 
ginia legislature to drive out the French. A little army of 
two hundred men was placed in command of Colonel Joshua 
Frye, with Lieutenant Colonel George Washington as sec- 
ond in command. With part of the troops Washington 
put out ahead of the others. He had not gone far when 
he met those driven from the " Gateway of the West." A 
report of that transaction was sent to the governors of 
Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. When the account 
was published in his paper, the Pouisylvania Gazette, Ben- 
jamin Franklin showed that he knew how to illustrate a 
newspaper. He printed a picture of a snake cut into parts, 
each part having by it the initial of a colony. Under the 
picture were the words "Join or Die." At that time it 
was believed that if a snake were cut in pieces and the 
pieces were joined before the sun went down, the snake 
would live. This was Franklin's strong way of telling the 
colonies they must unite for common defense if they wished 
to live. 

146. Fort Necessity. — Colonel Frye was taken sick and 
Washington took command of the troops sent against the 
French. At Great Meadows he built a fort, which he 
called Fort Necessity. His first attack upon the French 
was successful, -but soon the French and Indians came in 
such numbers that Washington, for the first and only time 
in his life, surrendered. He was allowed to march out of 
his fort with the honors of war, that is, with drums beating 
and flags flying. It has been said : " The firing of a gun 



Struggle for the Mastery in North America 159 

in the woods of North America brought on a conflict which 
drenched Europe in blood." The war was begun in Amer- 
ica. Here it was known as the French and Indian War. 
How it spread to Europe will be told later (§ 151). 

147. Congress at Albany. — From time to time the home 
government had suggested some plan of union among the 
colonies for common defense. At this time the Lords of 
Trade, officers having charge of colonial affairs for the 
home government, ordered the colonies to send delegates 
to a meeting in Albany to deal with Indian questions. 
This order was obeyed (1754) by the colonials, and a treaty 
was made with the Iroquois Indians in which they pledged 
their lasting friendship. 

Benjamin Franklin tried to put into practice the motto 
of his snake picture. He brought forth a plan of union 
providing for a President General for the united colonies, 
a Grand Council to be elected by the colonial legislatures, 
and giving to this Council the right to make treaties with 
Indians, to build and maintain forts, to raise and officer 
armies, and to levy taxes for those purposes. The Presi- 
dent General was to be appointed by the king. For this 
reason every one of the colonies rejected the plan, although 
it had been unanimously adopted by the Congress at Al- 
bany. When the plan of union was reported to Parliament, 
it was there rejected because it gave too much independent 
power to the colonies. Thus both sides discredited Frank- 
lin's plan for directly opposite reasons. 

148. Awakening of the Mother Countries. — Not only 
did the colonies reject the Albany plan of union, they also 
held back at the first sounds of war. They did not realize 
that the time had come to decide whether the French or 
the English should control the American continent. But 



i6o United States History for Schools 

the mother countries, France and Great Britain, under- 
stood the meaning of that "gun in the woods." Though 
the two nations were nominally at peace, both began to 
rush troops to America. The French stood on the de- 
fensive, relying on the chain of forts along the St. Law- 
rence, around the Great Lakes, down the length of the 
Mississippi and the four links of the new chain in the 
Ohio country. With the British troops sent to America 
the home government also sent, as commander in chief, 
one of the best British officers. Major General Edward 
Braddock (1755). When he arrived in America, General 
Braddock called on the colonial governors to meet him at 
Alexandria, Virginia, to plan a general campaign. 

149. The Fourfold Plan of Attack. — There were three 
routes by which the French could attack the British colo- 
nies if they should change their policy from defensive to 
offensive. One route was by way of the St. Lawrence and 
Lake Champlain to the Northern colonies, another by way 
of the Mohawk and Hudson valleys into New York, the 
third from Fort Duquesne into the Southern colonies. In 
the conference with General Braddock it was decided to 
carry the war to the French over those very danger routes 
instead of waiting for the enemy's attacks. A fourfold 
plan was agreed upon as follows : — 

First : To move north from New York, capture the forts 
at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and then move on to at- 
tack Quebec. 

Second : To sail with an expedition from New England 
to keep the French in the northeast busy. 

Third : To move up the Mohawk Valley, along Lake 
Ontario, and on to the Niagara River. 

Fourth : To capture Fort Duquesne. 



Struggle for the Mastery in North America i6i 

150. Defeats and Failures. — With one partial exception 
these four plans failed. The exception was the capture of 
the fort at Crown Point. The beautiful lake on which that 
fort stood was christened Lake George, in honor of the 
king. The most crushing of the defeats was that experi- 
enced by General Braddock himself on July 9, 1755. He 




Bkauuock's Defeat. 



had decided to lead the expedition against Fort Duquesne. 
His British regulars were increased with colonials until he 
had about twenty-two hundred men. George Washington 
accompanied him as an aid. When within eight miles of 
the fort, they were suddenly confronted by an army of 
French and Indians. After the first volley the enemy hid 
behind trees and rocks. Braddock thought that a cowardly 
way to fight, and he made his regulars stand up and fight 
in the open, as they had done bravely enough in Europe. 



162 United States History for Schools 

However brave and skillful he was, he did not know how 
to fight Indian fashion. His men were cut down by 
enemies they could not see. He himself received a wound 
from which he died soon afterwards. Washington took 
command of the retreat, and though four bullets pierced 
his coat, he came out of it unwounded, leading the sur- 
vivors to safety. The young Virginian was passing 
through a rough school, learning lessons that would be 
useful to him later. 

151. The Seven Years' War in Europe. — The Seven 
Years' War in Europe brought into the strongest light 
the abilities of four great men. William Pitt, the " Great 
Commoner," was so able and so eloquent that the people 
forced King George H., though unfriendly to him, to give 
him office and power. He had a greater genius for states- 
manship than any other man of his day. King Frederick 
the Great of Prussia was the greatest military genius of 
his time. The other two great men of that war were 
General James Wolfe, who was sent by Pitt to conquer 
Canada, and Robert Clive, a young officer who made such 
conquests from the French in India that Pitt referred to 
him as a " Heaven-born general." 

The French and Indian War in America was begun by 
collision of the colonies while France and Great Britain 
were still at peace. The Seven Years' War in Europe 
was begun (1756) by Austria to get revenge for the 
conquests by Frederick the Great. Austria secured help 
from Russia, Sweden, and France. Great Britain entered 
the war, and, of course, on the side opposed to France, her 
old enemy. Large sums of money (about $4,000,000) were 
sent each year to Frederick the Great. Pitt declared: "By 
war in Germany I will win America from France." 



Struggle for the Mastery in North America 163 

At the end of the war, Europe, though " drenched in 
blood," was left unchanged. Immense changes were 
wrought elsewhere. Great Britain was supreme in Amer- 
ica and India. 

152. More Defeats in America. — Great Britain had de- 
clared for war against France in 1756. At first the 
French won victories on land and sea, in America and 
elsewhere. It was in that gloomy time that the people of 
Great Britain demanded the use of Pitt's talents. He 
sent more men, better generals, and strong fleets to 
America, and the colonists, now thoroughly aroused, re- 
sponded nobly to the new impulse. 

One thing done during those years of defeat was the 
expulsion of the French Acadians from Nova Scotia. As 
they would not take the oath of allegiance to Great 
Britain, six thousand men, women, and children were 
moved to the other colonies. This event was afterwards 
made the theme of Longfellow's poem " Evangeline." 

153. Campaigns in 1758. — Pitt's new policy resulted in 
three brilliant victories and one sad defeat in 1758. A 
fleet under Admiral Boscawen, with Generals Amherst 
and Wolfe, attacked the strong fortress of Louisburg. 
After six months of fighting, the walls were shattered 
and five thousand French soldiers surrendered. 

General Forbes was sent against Fort Duquesne with 
troops gathered from Pennsylvania and the Southern 
colonies. The British were at first defeated, but Wash- 
ington, who was with the command, prevented a rout. 
The Indians left the French, who then burned the fort and 
retreated. The colonial troops took possession and rechris- 
tened it Fort Pitt, in honor of the great English leader. Part 
of that name remains in the modern Pittsburg. 



164 United States History for Schools 



General Bradstreet conquered and destroyed Fort 
Frontenac on Lake Ontario. This with the loss of Fort 
Duquesne were crushing blows to the French cause, as 
they removed the protection from the route into the Ohio 
country. 

The defeat of that year was at Fort Ticonderoga, which 
was held by the French like a wedge to split apart New 

England from New York. 
General George Augustus 
Howe, in charge of the 
attack on this stronghold, 
was killed in an early skir- 
mish. The command fell 
to General Abercrombie. 
The troops, including reg- 
ulars and colonials, num- 
bered fifteen thousand men, 
the largest army ever gath- 
ered in America up to that 
time. Instead of employ- 
ing the safe and sure 
method of siege, Abercrom- 
bie, from a safe distance, 
Marquis de Montcalm. , . ^ . 

sent his men on one lunous 

assault after another. In the fort was one of the ablest 
ofhcers that France had. General Montcalm. With skill 
he repelled the British troops until nearly two thousand 
of them lay dead on the field. The attack was then given 
up as a failure. 

154. Campaigns planned for 1759. — The victories of 
1758 were to be followed by a bold and vigorous advance 
in 1759. The center and most important part of the 




Struggle for the Mastery in North America 165 

whole plan was the attempt to capture Quebec. After 
Louisburg had fallen, it left Quebec the strongest forti- 
fication in the whole of America. Part of the city lay 
on the river bank, and the rest was on a bluff two hundred 
feet high. On this bluff were the terrifying fortifications. 
Behind the fort was a plateau called the Plains of 
Abraham. To take the place was well worth while, but it 
certainly was no easy task. 

The colonials responded to the call with enthusiasm. 
All together the British armies in America numbered fifty 
thousand men. One expedition 
was to move against Fort Niagara 
and from there to Montreal. 
Another,under General Amherst, 
was to drive the French out of 
Ticonderoga, and then by way 
of Lake Champlain move on to 
Quebec. The third and most 
important expedition was to 
move fleet and army directly 
against Quebec by way of the 

Gulf and River of St. Lawrence. 

11- 1 • General James Wolfe. 

The command of this expedition 

Pitt gave to James Wolf, the young general who had 

won great distinction in the campaign against Louisburg. 

Wolfe was only thirty-two years old, but he was energetic 

and skillful. He would justify his selection for the great 

task if he died in the effort. 

155. The Mastery settled in One Great Battle. — The 

months of July and August (1759) Wolfe spent in vain 

efforts to make a breach in the defenses of Quebec, " the 

Gibraltar " of America. The able Montcalm was in that 




1 66 United States History for Schools 

"Gibraltar" with a large army. As the month of Septem- 
ber began to give promise of cold weather, though Amherst 
had not yet come with his troops from Lake Champlain, 
Wolfe decided on a desperate move. He had found a path 
leading up the bluff a little beyond the city. Ordering 
the fleet to bombard the city's front, he landed five thousand 
troops at night, and on the morning of September 13 Mont- 
cahii was astonished to find an army ready for battle on 
the Plains of Abraham. He led out his troops. The battle 
was fought. It was a British victory. The wounded Wolfe, 
hearing the shouts of triumph, fell back and gasped, "Now 
God be praised, I die in peace." The wounded Montcalm 
was carried to the gates of his fort and was told he must 
soon die of his wounds. He exclaimed, " So much the 
better; I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." 

It is said that before he landed his attacking army, Wolfe 
read to his fellow-officers some lines from his favorite poem, 
Gray's " Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard," contain- 
ing the prophetic words : " The paths of glory lead but to 
the grave." Turning to his officers, he said, " Gentlemen, 
I would rather have written those lines than take Quebec." 
Canada has erected one common monument for the two 
generals and on it has inscribed : " Valor gave a united 
death, History a united fame. Posterity a united monument." 

156. Before the Treaty was Signed. — The fall of Quebec 
practically ended the French and Indian War, but there 
remained four years of the Seven Years' War of Europe 
to be fought. If no great reverses were to be encountered, 
Great Britain would retain the mastery in America. 

Montreal held out for a year, but then surrendered (1760) 
to General Amherst. The French chain of forts was 
deemed worthless, for it had lost its strongest links. 



Struggle for the Mastery in North America 167 

Pontiac, a powerful chief in the northwest, was not ready 
to yield to the British. He organized a league of tribes 
and went to war (1763), captured forts, burned frontier 
settlements, and killed hundreds of settlers. It was a 
terrible echo of the other war, but the Indians were finally 
overcome, and Pontiac sued for peace. 

Great Britain did not meet reverses in the rest of the Seven 
Years' War ; in fact she gained more victories, through 
her superior sea power. As Spain was an ally of France, 
Great Britain captured from Spain Florida, Havana, and 
Manila. By 1763 the nations were ready for peace. 

157. Treaty of Paris (1763). — This treaty left the map 
of Europe as it was before the war, but the map of America 
was greatly changed. Great Britain gave Manila and 
Havana back to Spain, but kept Florida. She also retained 
Canada, the eastern part of the Mississippi Valley, and the 
Ohio country. She now controlled North America from 
the Gulf of Mexico to Hudson Bay and from the Atlantic 
to the Mississippi. 

The loss of Canada discouraged France, and in order to 
pay Spain for her help in the war, she ceded to that nation 
what was left of Louisiana, including the city of New 
Orleans. The loss of all her wide dominion in America 
was a great humiliation to France. Ever after she re- 
ferred to that treaty of 1763 as '' The Shameful." 

158. Results of the War. — Besides the changes in the 
map, the war produced other results that were important. 
The greatest of these was the knowledge gained by the 
colonists of the strength in their united action. Thousands 
of brave and determined men obtained military training 
that would prepare them for action in the next crisis. 
Feeling the new strength and knowing the French enemy 



1 68 United States History for Schools 

in the North was gone, the colonists would naturally feel 
less dependent on the home country. The Western lands 
were opened and were looked upon as natural places for 
new colonies of their own people. Confidence, hope, and 
courage were all strengthened. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Show how New France was better prepared for war than the 
English colonies. 

2. Name the causes and results of King William's War. 

3. What did the British gain in Queen Anne's War? 

4. How did the Hudson Bay Company begin its work? 

5. Show the importance of the thirty years of peace. 

6. Trace the efforts of the French to strengthen their hold in 
America. 

7. Give some of the events of the thirty years of peace in Europe. 

8. What disgusted the colonists at the end of King George's War? 

9. Trace the early efforts of the French and British to secure the 
Ohio Valley. 

10. Describe the journey to Fort Venango by the young surveyor, 
George Washington. 

1 1. Why did Franklin publish the picture of a snake cut into pieces? 

12. Tell of Washington's only surrender. 

13. Why was Franklin's plan of union rejected by both the home 
government and the colonies? 

14. Tell of Braddock's defeat. 

15. What nations were fighting each other in Europe during the 
Seven Years' War? 

16. Why did Pitt have confidence in General Wolfe? 

17. Describe the battle on the Plains of Abraham. 

18. Why do the French call the treaty of 1763 " The Shameful " ? 

19. Point out some important results of the French and Indian War. 

CHRONOLOGY 

i6ig . . First slaves sold in Virginia. 

First legislative assembly in Virginia. 
1624 . . Virginia became a royal colony. 



Struggle for the Mastery in North America 169 



Separation of New Hampshire and Maine grants. 

Great immigration to Massachusetts Bay. 

Settlement of Maryland by Lord Baltimore. 

Connecticut founded as a separate colony. 

Providence Plantations founded by Roger Williams. 

Pequot Indian War. 

"United Colonies of New England" organized. 

Settlement of Carolina. 

New Netherland became New York. 

New Jersey granted to Berkeley and Carteret. 

Charter of the Hudson Bay Company. 

Marquette's expedition to the Mississippi. 

King Philip's Indian War. 

Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia. 

Penn received grant of Pennsylvania. 

Quakers secured New Jersey. 

Penn visited his colony; famous treaty with the Indians. 

Philadelphia founded. 

La Salle's voyage to the Mississippi. 

Andros became governor of New England. 

Tyrant Andros tried to seize Connecticut's charter. 

Andros in Boston's jail. 

Outbreak of King William's War. 

Witchcraft craze. 

Outbreak of Queen Anne's War. 

Beginning of the thirty years of peace. 

Oglethorpe founded Georgia. 

Outbreak of King George's War. 

Louisburg captured. 

Washington sent to warn the French from their Ohio forts. 

Congress at Albany; plan of union. 

Braddock's defeat. 

Beginning of Seven Years' War in Europe. 

Acadians banished from Nova Scotia. 

1758 . . Fort Duquesne changed to Fort Pitt. 

British defeat at Ticonderoga. 
Louisburg again captured. 

1759 . . Wolfe's great victory at Quebec. 
1763 . . Treaty of Paris. 



Ill 

Securing Independence 

CHAPTER XV 

THE WRANGLE OVER TAXATION 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 127-152 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 137-144- 

Home Readings. — Green's Short History of the EngUsh People, 
Vol. H., pp. 395-490; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. II., pp. 153-180; 
Holmes's Ballad of the Boston Tea Party ; Sparks's Men Who Made 
the Nation, pp. 1-46 (Franklin), 47-48 (Samuel Adams). 

159. Great Britain's Problem. — The home government 
was aware that the American problem of 1763 was very 
different from what it had been before. The colonies that 
had already shown independence by quarrelitig with the 
royal governors and by insisting on even greater measures 
of self-government would now feel much more free with 
the danger of the French invasion removed. 

The vast territory won by the conquest needed attention. 
A proclamation was issued (1763) creating of New France 
the province of Quebec. Florida was divided into the 
provinces of East Florida and West Florida. A line was 
drawn along the mountain sources of the rivers that flowed 
into the Atlantic, and the colonies were forbidden to plant 
settlements beyond that line. AH the land between that 
line and the Mississippi River and from Florida to the 
Great Lakes was to be given over to the Indians. 

170 




ENGLISH COLONIES 

IN ASIKKICA PRIOU TO 1763. 

New York after 1G64. 
Rliode Island after 1664. 
Connecticut, 1064-1774. 
Carolina, 1665. 
South Carolina, 1670, 

Pennsylvania, 1681. 

New Jersey after 1689. 

Massachusetts after 16'.'1. 

New Hampshire after Ib'Jl. 

Georgia, 1733. 



The Wrangle over Taxation 171 

The war had been expensive. The colonies had gone 
into debt,' but Great Britain had added to her debt the 
enormous sum of seven hundred million dollars. To pay 
that debt heavy taxes would be necessary, and some of the 
ministers believed the colonies should help to maintain the 
Empire by paying part of the taxes. 

Great Britain's problem was made more difficult by a 
change of kings. In 1760 King George II. died and his 
son became King George III. His mother had counseled 
him : '' George, be thou king." When he came to the 
throne, he boasted that he was born and bred a Briton. 
His father and his grandfather had both been Germans. 
The new king followed his mother's advice. He did not 
like the way Parliament and the Cabinet had increased 
their power. He often ignored the advice of his ministers, 
and depended upon the advice of his courtiers who became 
known as the " King's Friends." His attempts at arbitrary 
rule made the Englishmen at home fear for their liberties 
and finally helped to drive the colonials into a rebellion. 

160. Writs of Assistance. — We have seen how Crom- 
well's Navigation Act (1651) was rigidly enforced when 
King Charles II. came to the throne (§63). This was an 
effort to force the colonials to trade only with English 
merchants and to use only English ships. Other naviga- 
tion laws were passed and the efforts to avoid them made 
smuggling popular in America (§ 125). The new king's 
government undertook to enforce those old navigation 
laws and to stop smuggling. To do this a mean measure 
was adopted. This was the issuing of writs of assistance. 
These were search warrants in blank. Any officer or his 
assistant having one of these papers could write any- 
body's name in the blank line, and proceed to search his 



172 United States History for Schools 

home or his store from top to bottom on the suspicion of 
there being smuggled goods there. No man's home was 
safe from intrusion. Sometimes a blank was secured and 
the hated search was made simply out of spite. 

Boston merchants resisted these writs of assistance and 
engaged the lavver James Otis to take the case into court. 
The case was lost, but Otis made a most eloquent speech 
that echoed for years through all the colonies. Among 
other things he claimed that a man's home was his castle, 
and it was not justly to be invaded simply on suspicion. 
Forty years afterwards John Adams wrote an account of 
that great speech, in which he said that he and the others 
left the crowded court room ready to take up arms against 
writs of assistance. " Then and there," wrote Adams, "the 
child, independence, was born." 

As the scheme of writs of assistance did not stop smug- 
gling or opposition to the navigation acts the government 
sent over warships, and when they captured prisoners, they 
tried them in admiralty courts without juries. This was a 
blow at "trial by jury," one of the foundations of English 
liberties. The colonials opposed the plan bitterly. Many 
colonial ships were seized. Such losses increased both 
anger and opposition. 

161. The Stamp Act (1765). — The colonials did not object 
to taxes. They knew that government costs money, that 
money had to be raised by some form of tax, and that it was 
the duty of every citizen to pay his just share of the tax. 
What they did object to with all their might was the method 
of levying and collecting the taxes. In Great Britain no 
tax could be levied without the consent of Parliament. In 
America no tax could be levied without the consent of the 
legislature. The colonials shouted : " Taxation without 



The Wrangle over Taxation 



173 



representation is tyranny." By that they did not mean 
that they wanted to send representatives to Parliament be- 
fore the king could levy a tax on them. They meant that 
if the king was going to tax the colonials, he must do so by 
getting a vote from the colonial legislatures. To the co- 
lonials that was the only legal, just, and right way to levy 
taxes in the American colonies. 

But the obstinate king and his ministers decided to pay 
no attention to such legal rights of the colonials. Seeing 
that smuggling 
still defeated the 
navigation acts, 
they adopted a 
new plan of tax- 
ation, called the 
Stamp Act. 
Every legal doc- 
ument, every 
newspaper, 
every bill of 
mercha n d i s e, 
almost every 
form of paper had to bear an official stamp. These stamps 
cost all the way from one cent to fifty dollars, according 
to the value of the paper or the document. If this law 
were allowed to stand, it might produce revenue for the 
king, but it would be a burden and nuisance to the colonials. 
Benjamin Franklin was in London as the agent of Penn- 
sylvania. He tried his best to prevent the enactment of 
the law, but he said he might as well have tried to prevent 
the sun from setting. 

It did not help matters when the home government de- 




JSTAMRS OF 1765. 



174 United States History for Schools 



Glared that the money to be raised by this tax was to be 
used to pay ,the expense of an army in America for the de- 
fense of the colonies. The clear-cut question was : Shall 
ParHament tax America without the consent of the legisla- 
tures ? 

162. Patrick Henry leads the Opposition. — Patrick Henry 
was only twenty-nine years old, but even at that age he 
was a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses when 

the news of the Stamp 
Act came. He offered 
a set of resolutions in 
opposition. The leaders 
were opposed to such a 
stand, but Henry deliv- 
ered an oration which 
Thomas Jefferson said 
was the greatest one he 
had ever heard. After 
that oration five of 
the resolutions were 
adopted. They held 
that the colonists had 
the same rights as the people of Great Britain, and one 
of those rights was that of being taxed only by their own 
assembly. His oration and his resolutions increased Patrick 
Henry's reputation as a leader in Virginia, and they also 
traveled over the other colonies, increasing opposition to 
the Stamp Act. It was in that great oration that Henry 
made his famous statement, "Csesar had his Brutus, 
Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third" 
(here he was interrupted by a cry of " Treason ! " but he 
concluded :) " may profit by their example." 




Patrick Henry. 



The Wrangle over Taxation 



.^75 



163. Sons of Liberty. — • Throughout the larger cities the 
colonists organized a secret society, which received the name 
of " Sons of Liberty." They opposed the Stamp Act in 
every possible way and were by no means gentle in their 
methods. At first they persuaded the stamp distributors 
to resign. Then they seized every piece of stamped paper 
they could find and burned it in the presence of cheering 
crowds. When stamp officers refused to resign, their houses 
were torn down or 



they were otherwise 
roughly treated. 
One favorite way of 
opposition took the 
form of parades, 
when the " Sons of 
Liberty" would 
shout through the 
city streets, " Lib- 
erty, property, and 
no stamps ! " 

164. Stamp Act 
Congress. — New 
England had had 
its confederation 
(§103) and the colo- 
nials had joined in 

the Albany Congress to deal with Indian affairs (§ 147) and 
there considered Franklin's plan of union. Now there 
had come a crisis which again called for united action. 
Massachusetts sent out an invitation for the colonials to 
send delegates to a meeting in New York. Nine of them 
responded, and the "Congress" met in New York on 



fVJ LLIAM JACKS O N, 

an I M PORT E R-,vA the 
BRA/. EN HEAD, 

North SicL of /be TO\VX-liOi;SE, 

and O/yr.f/tc /he To-iii-Puwp, in 
Coni-hi//, BOSTON. 



It is dcfircJ rh.ir the Sons and 
Dai c [ITERS oi LI B ERT 7", 
vvoukl not buy any one thing of 
iiim, tor in focfoing tlicy will bring 
Difgruci- u|X)ii ^/•i«/'/;v.>, and their 
Po/kn/y, for lur .ind rja\ AMEN 



Non-Intercourse. 



176 United States History for Schools 

October 5, 1765. There they adopted the " Declaration of 
Rights and Grievances." The principal rights set forth 
were that they were subjects of the British crown, and as 
such could only be taxed by the consent of their own legis- 
latures. The grievances cited were the illegal taxes and 
the attack on the right of trial by jury in the admiralty 
courts. 

They did not aim at independence. They simply in- 
sisted upon their rights as British subjects, and from that 
Congress they sent an address to the king and petitions 
to Parliament. 

165. Opposition by Newspapers and Merchants. — The 
Stamp Act was to go into effect on November i, 1765. 
As that day drew near, the newspapers published issues in 
mourning bands of black. The Pennsylvania Journal had 
in one corner a picture of a skull and crossbones, around 
which were the words : " An emblem of the effects of the 
stamp. Oh ! the fatal Stamp." The editor said he would 
stop publishing his paper "in order to deliberate whether 
any methods can be found to elude the chains forged for 
us." 

The merchants made written agreements not to buy any 
goods in Great Britain. The people joined in these agree- 
ments. That was a blow that soon made many of King 
George's merchants at home angry, for it interfered seri- 
ously with a profitable trade. 

166. Repeal of the Stamp Act (1766). — Americans dis- 
covered that they had powerful friends in England. Chief 
among them was William Pitt, who made a famous speech 
in the House of Commons, in which he said : "The gentle- 
man tells us, America is obstinate ; America is almost 
in open rebellion. I rejoice that America has resisted. 



The Wrangle over Taxation 177 

Three milHons of people so dead to all the feelings of lib- 
erty, as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, would have 
been fit instruments to make slaves of the rest." Of 
course such a speech was immensely popular in America. 
It was also popular in England. The people there were 
tired of all the trouble over taxing colonists without their 
consent, and there were many Englishmen who believed, 
with William Pitt, that British liberties were also in danger 
from that kind of taxation. 

At the end of the sharp debate Parliament repealed, the 
Stamp Act. When the king went to give his royal assent 
there were great crowds who cheered along the street. 
When the report reached Boston, a handbill was hastily 
printed telling about the " Glorious News " and also telling 
the colonials how the news had been received in England, 
as follows: "There were the greatest rejoicings possible 
in the City of London by all ranks of peojjle, on the total 
repeal of the Stamp Act, — the ships in the River dis- 
played all their colors. Illuminations and bonfires in many 
parts. In short, the rejoicings were as great as was ever 
known on any occasion." 

167. It was not a Total Repeal. — The repeal of the 
Stamp Act was forced upon the king and his " friends " 
by the people at home and in the colonies. He did not 
like it and to appease him another act was passed at the 
same time. It was called the " Declaratory Act." The 
declaration was that Parliament still had the right to legis- 
late for America "in all cases whatsoever." Benjamin 
Franklin told the British ministers that those " resolutions 
(Declaratory Act) of right would give the colonists very 
little concern, if they are never attempted to be carried 
into practice." 



lyS United States History for Schools 

168. How the Revolution was hastened by the Gout. — 

No Englishman was more loved by the people than was 
William Pitt. Hope ran high when it was decided that he 
would again take office. Two unfortunate things hap- 
pened at that critical time. Pitt accepted the title of Earl 
of Chatham, and the " Great Commoner " became a mem- 
ber of the House of Lords. That step cost him much of 
his influence with the people. At the same time he was 
afflicted with the gout. He became so ill that he would 
not allow the members of the Cabinet to talk with him, and 
he even refused to see his sovereign when the king went 
so far as to pay to his statesman a personal visit during the 
troubled times in America. 

The colonials would have listened to Pitt as to no other 
Englishman, and Pitt, sympathizing with them, might have 
found a way to avoid trouble. But his illness threw the 
work into the hands of others who by rash measures in- 
creased the trouble. It is quite likely that independence 
would have come in time, but it now seems certain that the 
Revolution was hastened by Pitt's attack of the gout. 

169. The Townshend Acts (1767). — Franklin's word of 
caution (§ 167) was ignored, and the Declaratory Act was 
put into force the year after it was passed. Charles Town- 
shend, the minister who took the lead while Pitt was ill, 
said he kaew a way to get a revenue from America, and 
he declared : " England is undone if this taxation of 
America is given up." While he was working out his plan. 
New York, through its legislature, declined to furnish food 
and supplies for the British soldiers sent there. As soon 
as this was known in England, Parliament declared the 
action of the New York legislature to be null. Such 
severe action frightened the colonials, who saw in it an 
attack on their liberty to make their own laws. 



The Wrangle over Taxation 179 

Townshend's plan had three parts. First, New York 
was punished by having her assembly suspended. This 
was a new and dangerous thrust at the most important of 
colonial institutions. Second, to enforce the navigation 
acts and collect customs duties, a board of commission was 
appointed. Third, a new tax was levied. The colonials 
were required to pay duties on all glass, paints, paper, and 
tea. It was estimated that this tax would produce forty 
thousand pounds a year, and the money was to be used to 
pay the salaries of colonial governors and judges. 

170. Samuel Adams and the Circular Letter. — Samuel 
Adams of Massachusetts is called the " Father of the 
Revolution." When Patrick Henry delivered his oration 
against the Stamp Act in Virginia (§ 162), Samuel Adams 
also delivered a great speech against the Act, in Faneuil- 
Hall, " the Cradle of Liberty." Against these new Town- 
shend Acts Adams started a new and effective kind of 
resistance. He drew up a circular letter, which was adopted 
by the Massachusetts legislature and sent to the other 
colonies. This produced united action of protest against 
the new tax. 

The king and his ministers were furious. They issued 
commands to the governors to send to their homes every 
legislature that adopted such a protest. They also ordered 
British troops to Boston and demanded that the agitators 
be arrested and sent to England for punishment. The 
troops arrived, but the commands of the king were not 
obeyed by the governor. 

171. Repeal of the New Tax (1770). — The legislatures 
protested and sent petitions to Parliament. The people 
refused to buy the taxed goods. The opposition, though 
much more orderly, was quite as sincere as that against 



iS^" r:v,:c\i St.itcs llistorv tor Schools 



the Si;ini p Act had been. Instead of forty thous;\jid pounds, 
the first year under the law produced only sixteen thousand 
pounds, and it cv^st tilieon thous,uui pounds to collect that 
smu. l>esides tliat, the government had paid one hundred 
and seventy thousand pounds tor the expenses of the sol- 
diei-s in America. It was clear that the law w.is a failure, 
h was appealed, but once more the government tried to 
SxUe its power of taxation bv ret;\ining the tax on tea. 
This was a stupid blunder. Such tax would yield no great 
revenue and it would keep alix'x'! the opposition. 

172. Violence in the Colonies. — If the rej>eal of the tax 
had Kvn conipicio. some cause of trouble would still re- 
main so long as the British kept the soldiers in America. 
Those in Boston had a a^llision with the people. A squad 
of soldiers were marching thi\>ugh the streets whei\ they 
were n\et by a mob. Both sides became abusive. Snow- 
balls and stones w oi o tha^wn, and finally the soldiers tired a 
volley killing tive n\en. This is now known in histv^ry as the 
" Boston Mass;K"R\" though the name is much too big for 
the event. That tight occurre<tl on the night of March 5, 
i,~~o, and the next morning Boston met in town meeting 
in Old South Meetinghouse, Samuel Adams carrievl from 
the meeting to the gx>vernor the people's demand that the 
troops be taken out of Boston. The soldiers were removed 
tv^ an island in the harlx^r. The king's soldiers also had 
trouble with the j^eople in New York and North Carv>lin;u 

In 1773 a rx>\*al re\-eaiue vessel called the CTas/^^ mn 
aground while chasing a smug-gler otT the shore of Rh^xle 
Island. She was attacked and burned by armevl men. 
The colonial otlicers made no attempt to punish the men 
for this act ot violence. 

ITS. Committees of Corre^vxMuionce vi77i\ — Samuel 



The Wrangle over Taxation i8i 

/ 

Adams ()ri,i;inalc(l an iiinoci-nl plan whicli had very im- 
|)()itant results, lie persuaded llie Boston town nieetini^ 
to appoint a loinniitlee to correspond with other towns in 
Massaclnisells. All liie towns would ihus learn what was 
<;"()in};" on throughout the colony. 'This plan was soon ex- 
panded so that each colony was connnunicatinj;" with every 
other colony throuL;h connnittces oi correspondence. There 
was then no Conj^ress lor united action. 'I'hese conniiittees 
took the place of such a union. 

174. "Boston Tea Party." — The tea tax was clung to 
that Great liritain nn't^ht save the right to tax the colonies. 
But the colonials were willing to get along without tea 
lather than pay such a tax. In the meantime the Ivist 
India C'oinpany was suffering from the loss of trade in 
the lea they brought from the Orient. The home gov- 
ernment tried to force the colonials to buy. The officers 
removed the larger ])ait of the duties in hjigland, and thus 
allowed the tea to be reshipped and sold in America at a 
price lower even than in ICngland itself, l^ut to buy would 
be acknowk;dging the right of Great Britain to collect the 
tax, and the colonials knew it. 

When the ships arrived in America, there was great op- 
position. I^'rom some places the ships were sent back at 
once. The most famous case was in Boston. A large 
town meeting was held (1773), and a demand was made 
that the tea be sent back to l^ngland. That was refused, 
and the meeting continued into the evening, when sud- 
denly the ])eople were startled by hearing an Indian war 
whoop. The meeting adjourned and followed to the wharf 
a band of men disguised as Indians. Without destroying 
other property they dumped into the harbor the contents 
of three hundred and forty-two chests of tea. It was per- 



1 82 United States History for Schools 

fectly clear that the colonials would not submit to illegal 
taxes, even a small one on the single luxury of tea. On 
the other hand, this form of violent opposition was also 
illegal. The colonials knew that, and so they hid them- 
selves in the disguises of Indians. 

175. The Home Government strikes Back (1774). — No 
king, no ministers, no members of Parliament, could possi- 
bly excuse the colonials for those violent acts. The Ameri- 
can friends in Parliament could and did say that Parhament 
was largely to blame for trying the illegal taxes, but they 
could not excuse the burning of the warship Gaspee or the 
destruction of the tea and other private property or the 
abuse and rough treatment of soldiers and officers. King 
George and his ministers, thoroughly aroused and angry, 
had no trouble in persuading Parliament to strike back. 
The mistake they made was in trying to punish one set of 
illegal acts by another set of acts equally objectionable. 
These acts took the form of five harsh laws. 

The first law was meant as punishment for the famous 
tea party. The port of Boston was to be rigidly closed to 
all trade until the town of Boston made humble submission 
to the home government. Edmund Parker, an American 
friend in Parliament, objected to this law because it punished 
the innocent with the guilty. 

The second law v^'as to punish the entire colony of Mas- 
sachusetts by taking away some of the liberties set forth in 
the charter. This was a serious blow at the very founda- 
tion of the colony. If it succeeded with Massachusetts, 
no other colony could feel safe from a similar blow when 
Parliament was ready to strike. 

The third law provided for sending certain prisoners to 
England for trial. 



The Wrangle over Taxation 



183 



The fourth law was a new scheme for compelling the 
colonists to furnish shelter and supplies for the British 
soldiers. 

The fifth law was called the Quebec Act. This was 
intended to keep as friends of Great Britain the French 
Canadians by giving them greater liberties. There was 




King George III. of England. 



nothing about this to complain of, but the same Act attached 
to Quebec all the Ohio country between the Ohio River, 
the Mississippi River, and the Great Lakes. The old Eng- 
lish colonies claimed that land under their charters, their 



184 United States History for Schools 

pioneers were settling there, and this law was intended to 
stop those new settlements and to wipe out the colonies' 
claims to the lands. 

176. A Crisis in America. — All this trouble, all this 
wrangle, was about taxation. Although there were blame 
and stubbornness on both sides, it was clearly seen that the 
strain between the colonies and the home government was 
fast approaching the breaking point. 

At this crisis the Committees of Correspondence proved 
their usefulness. Every colony was quickly informed of 
the new laws and of the plans to meet the attacks by Par- 
liament. The Virginia legislature adopted a resolution 
saying that the day Boston's port was closed would be 
observed as a day of "fasting and prayer" in Virginia. 
For that action the royal governor of Virginia dissolved 
the legislature. The Committee of Correspondence then 
took its place, and Patrick Henry proclaimed : '" We must 
fight. I repeat it, sir, we must fight." George Washington 
agreed to raise a thousand men, feed them at his own 
expense, and march to the relief of Boston. Expressions 
of sympathy and promises of help poured into Boston from 
other towns and colonies. 

General Gage arrived in Boston as the new military 
governor of Massachusetts. He brought four regiments 
of British troops. On June 17, 1774, the Massachusetts 
legislature being in session, Samuel Adams introduced a 
resolution calling for a Colonial Congress to discuss these 
new and oppressive measures. General Gage heard what 
was proposed and sent a hurried messenger to deliver his 
proclamation dissolving the assembly. The messenger 
found the door locked. He knocked there in vain. The 
door was not opened until the resolution was adopted- 



The Wrangle over Taxation 185 

When the new governor's proclamation was read, the 
assembly was dissolved. The Massachusetts Committee 
of Correspondence took its place and sent messages about 
the proposed congress to all the other colonies. Every 
colony approved the plan, and New York asked Massachu- 
setts to name the time and place for assembling. Mas- 
sachusetts named Philadelphia as the place and September 
I, 1774, as the time. 

177. First Continental Congress (1774). — The royal gov- 
ernors were watchful. They did not favor the idea of a 
Colonial Congress. One assembly after another was dis- 
solved as soon as it proposed to choose delegates to the 
Congress. The people then held meetings or conventions, 
so that every colony but Georgia managed in some way to 
name delegates. Everywhere leading men were selected, 
such as George Washington and Patrick Henry of Virginia, 
Samuel Adams and John Adams, the famous cousins from 
Massachusetts, Roger Sherman from Connecticut, and John 
Jay from New York. 

This was by far the most important meeting ever held in 
America up to that time. When it was called to order in 
Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia, on September 5, the del- 
egates were first afraid to have the meeting begun with 
prayer because they did not believe that Puritans, Episco- 
palians, Quakers, Catholics, Presbyterians, Baptists, and 
others could join in a prayer led by any one minister. At 
that point Samuel Adams declared that he was ready to be 
led in prayer by a patriotic clergyman of the Episcopal 
church then living in Philadelphia. Such a word from 
Puritan Massachusetts was like magic to the meeting. 
From that moment it was clear the colonies were ready to 
lay aside all differences over creeds in the presence of the 



1 86 United States History for Schools 

threatened attacks upon their liberties. They probably 
felt that if they lost their liberties, they would lose their 
churches as well. 

A few of the leaders were already in favor of independ- 
ence, but the great majority beheved in simply protecting 
their rights as British subjects. So the first Congress con- 
tented itself with the adoption of a series of addresses to 
the people of the colonies, of Canada, of Great Britain, and 
to the king. To these addresses was added a declaration 
of rights. All these papers were very carefully written in 
dignified language. The delegates then pledged them- 
selves not to import any goods, especially slaves or tea, from 
Great Britain. Every colony was asked to join in this move. 
It was known as the " Association." It was greater than 
any other effort to defeat the taxes by stopping trade. 

It was then agreed that if Parliament did not act favor- 
ably upon their addresses, a second Congress would assem- 
ble in May, 1775. 

178. Great Compliment from William Pitt. — In the 
House of Lords William Pitt, then Earl of Chatham, made 
a strong speech, in which he paid the colonials a great 
compliment, as follows : "When your lordships look at the 
papers, when you consider their decency, firmness, and 
wisdom, you cannot but respect their cause and wish to 
make it your own. For myself, I must declare and avow, 
that in all my reading and observation, — and it has been 
my favorite study: I have read Thucydides, and have 
studied and admired all the master states of the world, — 
that for solidity of reasoning, force of sagacity, and wisdom 
of conclusion, under such a complication of circumstances, 
no nation or body of men can stand in preference to the 
general congress at Philadelphia." 



The Wrangle over Taxation 187 

179. The Soft Message got a Hard Answer. — The king 
and his minister were in no mood to deal gently with the 
colonies. The Congress was looked upon as a rebellious 
body. Instead of framing an answer to those mild ad- 
dresses sent by the Congress, Parliament passed laws de- 
claring Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and 
forbidding the colonies to trade with Great Britain or the 
West Indies or to take any part in the fisheries of New- 
foundland. 

The wrangle over taxation had brought the mother 
country and her colonies close to the verge of war. The 
colonists felt sure that if they submitted to illegal taxation, 
all their other liberties would soon be gone. So they re- 
sisted to the end. At that time it was not realized in the 
mother country that if the government succeeded with 
such illegal taxes in the colonies, they might soon be levied 
upon the people of Great Britain as well. More than a 
hundred years afterwards, Great Britain's minister to the 
United States declared (1879): " Englishmen now under- 
stand that in the American Revolution you were fighting 
our battles." 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Show how a new king made more difficult the British problem 
in America. 

2. What was a " writ of assistance " ? 

3. Why did the colonists oppose the Stamp Act ? 

4. What was done by the Stamp Act Congress ? 

5. Show some of the forms of opposition to the stamps. 

6. Tell why the repeal of the Stamp Act was not complete. 

7. How did. Pitt's illness hasten the Revolution ? 

8. Describe Townshend's threefold plan for taxing America. 

9. Of what use was the Adams circular letter ? 
10. Why was the tea tax a blunder ? 



1 88 United States History for Schools 

1 1 . How did the colonials learn of each others plans ? 

12. Describe the "Boston Tea Party." 

13. Show how the home government sought to punish the violence 
of the colonials. 

14. Tell of the sympathy extended to Boston when her port was 
dosed. 

15. Describe the First Continental Congress. i 

16. How were the soft messages answered ? 



CHAPTER XVI 

FIRST HALF OF THE REVOLUTION 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 154-173 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 144-15 1. 

Home Readings. — Abbot's Blue Jackets of '76 ; Bryant's Seventy- 
Six ; Cooper's Lionel Lincoln ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. IL, pp. 183- 
227 ; Henty'.s True to the Old Flag ; Holmes's Grandmother's Story of 
Bunker Hill Battle ; Longfellow's Paul Revere's Ride ; Sparks's Men 
Who Made the Nation, pp. 79-118 (John Adams). 

180. Hostilities begin at Lexington (1775). — "Stand 
your ground. Don't fire unless fired upon. But if they 
mean to have a war, let it begin here." Thus spoke 
Captain Parker to his " Minute Men " at Lexington on 
April 19, 1775. Since then the words have been carved 
on a granite bowlder marking the place where those 
"embattled farmers" lined up at Lexington. Any one 
standing there to-day and reading those famous words 
must thrill with the thought of being on the spot where 
the actual fighting of the American Revolution was 
commenced. 

Across the street from the granite bowlder is still stand- 
ing the quaint old wooden house in which John Hancock and 
Samuel Adams were roused from sleep on that eventful 
morning. The alarm was given by Paul Revere, the 
famous messenger of the Revolution. When the Massa- 
chusetts assembly was dissolved, the Committee of Cor- 
respondence did the best it could until a Provincial 
Congress was formed. At this Congress John Hancock 



190 



United States History for Schools' 



was president and Samuel Adams was the leading spirit. 
This Congress made arrangements for twenty thousand 
men to be ready to fight at a minute's notice. They be- 
came known as "Minute Men." 

General Gage heard that John Hancock and Samuel 
Adams were staying with a friend in Lexington. He 
sent British soldiers to arrest them 
and to proceed then to Concord to 
capture the arms and ammunition the 
Minute Men had collected there. In 
some way the Americans found out 
the plan, a beacon was hung in the 
belfry of the Old North Church, and 
the signal was caught by Paul Revere. 
He and William Dawes, another mes- 
senger, dashed out over the roads on 
horseback, shouting, " The Regulars 
are coming ! " 

Hancock and Adams were saved, 
and the Minute Men gathered on 
Lexington Green. When the troops 
found the Minute Men lined up for 
battle, the British fired and killed 
seven of them. The troops then 
hurried on to Concord. They destroyed some of the am- 
munition, but most of it had been carried away to safety. 
At Concord Bridge the troops again met the Minute Men, 
who came flocking in from every side. The fight was severe 
and earnest. Men were killed on both sides and the British 
troops started back toward Boston. Now the Minute Men 
had the advantage. They hastened from the fields, hid 
behind logs or rocks, and shot the retreating soldiers. 




The Minute Man. 



From a Statue b y Daniel Chester 
French. 



First Half of the Revolution 



191 



The two thousand British troops kept hurrying their 
march until it became a confused rush for safe quarters 
at Boston. They had lost three hundred of their men, 
while the Americans had lost but one hundred. The 
Americans followed the British troops to Boston. Others 
came in from all the country side until there were sixteen 
thousand of them. The 
siege of Boston by the 
Americans had begun. 

181. Second Continen- 
tal Congress (1775). — 
Before the battle of 
Lexington had occurred 
the colonies had chosen 
delegates to the Second 
Continental Congress, 
for they knew Great 
Britain had answered 
their addresses with 
more harsh measures. 
The delegates met in 
Philadelphia on May 10, 
1775, and elected John 
Hancock president. The delegates then knew all about 
Lexington and the siege of Boston. 

The Congress decided that the colonies must unite in re- 
sisting the mother country and to do so must raise an army 
of twenty thousand men. Right there was given another 
evidence of united feeling like the case of the prayer in 
the First Continental Congress (§ 177). This time John 
Adams of Massachusetts proposed George Washington of 
Virginia as commander in chief of the Continental army. 




iNDKrENDKNCE HAI.I. AT PH I lAI iKM'll I A. 



192 United States History for Schools 

As before, this showing of mutual trust had a good 
effect. In accepting the position Washington disclosed 
his modesty by declaring he thought it was too great for 
his abilities. He also manifested his great patriotism by 
saying he would keep an account of his expenses, which 
Congress would no doubt refund, but for his own services 
he would not expect any pay. The great leader served his 
country through the war without a salary. No wonder 
the people loved and clung to such a leader ! 

182. The Attacks on Canada (1775). — Among those 
addresses adopted by Congress (§ 177) was one to the 
people of Canada. It was hoped to enlist those people in 
the fight against illegal taxes. It was also hoped to secure 
Canadian help as the war approached. Both hopes were 
vain. From bitter experience in the past New England 
knew the importance of the line of attack by way of Lake 
Champlain. So, while the siege of Boston was going on, 
Ethan Allen of Vermont and Benedict Arnold of Con- 
necticut were sent with troops who captured Forts Ticon- 
deroga and Crown Point. Later Montreal was captured 
and in December Montgomery and Arnold tried to cap- 
ture Quebec. In this they were defeated. Montgomery 
was killed and Arnold was severely wounded. 

183. Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775). — The British 
government sent General William Howe to Boston to suc- 
ceed General Gage. As soon as he arrived he saw the 
importance of securing control of Bunker Hill and 
Breed's Hill, from which an enemy could shoot can- 
non balls into their camps in Boston. The Americans 
also saw the advantage of those hills. Before the 
British took up a position there, fifteen hundred Ameri- 
cans, led by Colonel Prescott, began to throw up intrench- 



First Half* of the Revolution 19J 

ments at night. In the morning the British general was 
surprised to find, what he had feared, the enemy on those 
hills. 

With twenty-five hundred soldiers General Howe 
marched against the rude fort of earth. Colonel Prescott 
cautioned his men to " Wait until you can see the whites 
of their eyes." As the British troops drew near, they re- 
ceived a terrible volley and those who survived retreated. 
Colonel Prescott had been joined by General Warren and 
General Putman. The British then set fire to Charlestown 
and started for a second attack on the hills. The Ameri- 
cans used up all their powder, but they still fought with 
bayonets and by using their muskets as clubs while they 
retreated. 

The British won, but they had left one thousand of their 
troops dead on the field. The Americans lost four hun- 
dred and fifty, including the brave General Warren. The 
British awoke to the fact that the Americans knew how to 
fight. The Americans were encouraged to find their re- 
cruited Minute Men were as brave as the veterans in the 
British army. Washington, when he heard of the kind of 
fighting that was done, declared : " The liberties of the 
country are safe." 

184. Washington takes Command. — As Washington 
passed north from Philadelphia to take command of the 
army besieging Boston, he was heartily welcomed by each 
town through which he passed. As he drew near New 
Haven, the people marched out in a procession to receive 
him. Part of the parade was made up of Yale College 
students, a sophomore in the lead, playing a fife. His 
name was Noah Webster. As a junior he left college to 
join his father's company and fight for independence, but 



194 United States History for Schools 

he did not become famous until years afterwards wiien he 
published his great dictionary. 

In Cambridge, near Harvard University, there is still 
standing a prized old elm tree. It is said that Washington 
stood under its branches when he officially took command 
of the Continental army on July 3, 1775. Many of the 
Minute Men had gone home. The others were undisci- 
plined. Washington kept the British troops shut up in 
Boston while he drilled his men and collected ammunition 
and suppHes. 

185. The Siege of Boston a Success. — Boston was the 
center of interest. The British aimed the first attacks at 
that town, and after the first battles the Americans gained 
strength by being able to hold the British troops there by 
siege. Washington continued the siege for eight months. 
He could not drive the British out of Boston without can- 
nons. During the winter General Knox succeeded in 
dragging fifty cannons on ox sleds, for about two hundred 
miles, part of the way through the wilderness, to Cam- 
bridge. These were some of the British cannons captured 
at Fort Ticonderoga (§ 182). Early in March (1776) 
Washington took possession of Dorchester Heights on the 
southern edge of Boston. The Americans quickly dug 
intrenchments and planted their cannons in position. 
General Howe had to fight or get out of Boston. 

Howe did not want another battle like that of Bunker 
Hill, so he embarked his soldiers in the British ships and 
sailed away for Halifax (March 17, 1776). With him went 
about one thousand citizens who sympathized with the 
king's side. Among the refugees were many good and 
able men who did not believe in the separation from Eng- 
land. There were such people in all the colonies. They 



First Half of the Revolution 195 

were called Loyalists and sometimes they were called 
Tories. In England the Royalist party was called Tory 
and the opposition was called the Whig party. Those in 
America who believed in resistance were sometimes called 
Whigs, and sometimes Patriots. Of course the king called 
them Rebels. 

There was great rejoicing when Washington marched 
his triumphant army into Boston. Congress voted the 
leader a gold medal for his victory. 

186. British attack in the South. — It was well known 
that among the Scotch Highlanders and others in South 
Carolina there were many loyal Tories. The British 
therefore planned to take advantage of their presence by 
trying to capture the rich city of Charleston. Clinton 
moved down with troops from the North, and other troops 
were sent from England under General Cornwallis. They 
found the city defended by a rude fort of logs on Sullivan 
Island in the harbor. Colonel Moultrie in the fort with 
his brave Southern neighbors fought so stubbornly that the 
British gave up the attack. The fort was then named 
Fort Moultrie. 

187. Who were Rulers of Europe. — A new nation was 
about to be born in America. On the threshold of that 
great event it is well to glance briefly at the conditions in 
Europe. 

There was a new king in France. In 1774 Louis XV. 
died and was succeeded by Louis XVI. He was proud of 
his ability as a hunter. In his palace was a cabinet con- 
taining lists of all the birds and animals he had killed. He 
was also fond of making locks. He kept a locksmith 
named Gamin, and the two would hide away from the 
Court to work at the forge. He left affairs of state to his 



196 United States History for Schools 

ministers. Some of them were wise, but in the end they 
brought about a terrible tragedy. 

Maria Theresa was still Empress of Austria. At the 
same time Joseph II. was king of Hungary and Bohemia, 
and he was also Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. 
He tried to introduce reforms, but the people were not 
ready for them yet. 

Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, ruled forty-six years, 
until 1786. Just half of his reign was devoted to wars. 
The other twenty-three years were given to works of peace. 
These works should be remembered even more than his 
wars. He drained marshes, built roads, improved educa- 
tion, and made the nation strong and prosperous. 

Russia had become a power in Europe. The ruler was 
one of the world's remarkable women, Empress Catherine 
II., called " the Great," who reigned thirty-four years (1762- 
1796). 

Russia, Austria, and Prussia united in a disgraceful com- 
bination when they began to divide Poland (1772) and 
take parts of that kingdom for themselves. 

188. Conditions in Great Britain. — The one country of 
Europe most interesting at that moment was Great Britain. 
She was at peace with all the world. She had a popula- 
tion of eight millions, and, of course, could muster an enor- 
mous army. Her manufactures had increased, she led the 
world in commerce and she ruled the sea. Before the 
Americans had any navy whatever. Great Britain used one 
hundred and thirty cruisers to carry the British army to 
New York. She could raise immense sums of money by 
taxes. Part of that money she used to buy German soldiers, 
Hessians, for thirty-six dollars a head, as if they were 
horses. The Hessians were brave and honest soldiers, but 



First Half of the Revolution 197 

Great Britain's use of them greatly increased the anger of 
the Americans. 

The British Parliament was divided on the American 
question, but the king had one determined thought. Said 
he, " Every means of distressing America must meet with 
my concurrence." 

189. Fighting Strength of America. — Against the eight 
millions of population in Great Britain there were but three 
millions in the colonies. Of these five hundred thousand 
were slaves. There was at first no navy, and the army ran 
as low as five thousand men at one time. A serious source 
of weakness was the desire of the colonies to manage their 
own militia forces instead of combining them all in the 
Continental army. Another weakness was the small 
amount of money America could raise compared with Great 
Britain. These weaknesses, however, were more than made 
up by the bravery and patriotism of the soldiers and their 
officers, especially of Washington, the peerless leader, who 
never despaired, who never made a serious blunder, and 
who held the confidence of the new and strugghng nation. 

190. Birth of the New Nation. — Even after the outbreak 
of hostilities there were many good people in America 
who believed the colonies ought to remain parts of the 
British Empire. But when the king sent over increasing 
armies, including the hired Hessians, the leaders were 
convinced that a peaceful settlement was no longer 
possible. 

Congress hesitated about taking the final step. As late as 
July 8, 1775, another petition was sent to the king. The 
answer was a royal proclamation of a rebellion in America. 
Congress then began to act by getting ready for united 
resistance and a government separate from Great Britain. 



198 United States History for Schools 

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia 
offered this resolution : — 

"Resolved, That these United Colonies are, and of 
right ought to be, free and independent States, that they 
are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, 
and that all political connection between them and the 
State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis- 
solved." 

The question was too important for haste. Action 
on the resolution was delayed for nearly a month. But 
in case the resolution was to be adopted a declaration 
would be needed to announce the fact to the world. So 
a committee to draw up such a paper was appointed. 
It consisted of Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams 
of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, 
Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and Robert R. Livingston 
of New York. Jefferson was asked to write the paper 
and submit it to the other members of the committee. 
When they received the copy, they had few corrections 
to offer. To Jefferson belongs the full credit of writing 
one of the great documents in world history. 

Congress adopted Lee's resolution on July i, and three 
days afterwards (July 4) the officers signed the Declara- 
tion of Independence. The first signature was by John 
Hancock, who wrote in big bold letters, "so the king of 
England could read without spectacles." He then said, 
" We must be unanimous ; we must hang together." To 
this Franklin made his witty reply, " Yes, we must all 
hang together, or else we shall all hang separately." 
That was the feeling at the time. It was really five 
years later that the last signatures were placed upon the 
grand old document. The act of declaring independence 



First Half of the Revolution 



199 



was kept quiet for some time to avoid " hanging sepa- 
rately." Years afterwards a beautiful myth was written, 
declaring that the Declaration had been received with 
glad acclaim and that its 
signing had been answered 
by the ringing of the bell in 
the old Pennsylvania State 
House (Independence Hall). 
The American people have 
shown their love for such 
dramatic patriotism by ac- 
cepting that myth as truth. 
The old bell is loved by all 
Americans as the " Liberty 
Bell." It may still be seen 
in old Independence Hall in 
Philadelphia. It was twenty- 
four years old on the day it 
was claimed to have an- 
nounced the birth of a 
nation. When it was cast no one could foretell its mission, 
yet the designer had helped to lay the foundation of the 
beautiful legend by placing upon the metal these words : 
" Proclaim liberty throughout the land unto all the inhab- 
itants thereof." 

191. Strategic Value of the Hudson. — Everybody knew 
that hard fighting would follow the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. The most apparent military problem of the 
war was the control of the Hudson River. This was rec- 
ognized by the New England Minute Men, who rushed 
off to capture Ticonderoga and Crown Point (§ 182) after 
the battle of Lexington. Those forts would stop an in- 




LiBERTY Bell. 



200 United States History for Schools 

vasion to the Hudson from the north. Washington knew 
the British would strike at New York so as to control the 
middle colonies and to provide a way for the British to 
come down from Canada and thus separate New England 
from the Southern colonies. 

Therefore, soon after driving the British out of Boston 
(§ 185) Washington took an army to New York and built 
Fort Washington and Fort Lee on the opposite sides of 
the Hudson River. His surmise was correct. In the 
summer General Howe and his brother Admiral Howe 
arrived at New York with a fleet and an army of thirty 
thousand men. Washington was on Long Island with his 
army of eighteen thousand men. General Howe landed on 
August 27 and defeated part of the American army. Ad- 
miral Howe then brought his ships to prevent Washington's 
retreat from the island. During the night, protected by a 
heavy fog, Washington accomplished the remarkable feat 
of taking his army across the river in small boats. 

192. Treachery and Defeat for the Americans. — Although 
General Howe was slow, he had plenty of troops and ships 
to carry out the British idea of securing New York. After 
some fighting along the northern edge of New York, he 
captured both Fort Washington and Fort Lee with about 
three thousand American prisoners. Washington was 
skillful enough to escape with part of his army, crossed 
the river, and marched into New Jersey to prevent the 
British from capturing Philadelphia. 

Before leaving New York, Washington had placed half 
of his army in command of General Charles Lee at North 
Castle. Needing every available soldier for the defense of 
Philadelphia, Washington ordered Lee to bring up his 
troops. Lee was second in command. He was jealous of 



First Half of the Revolution 



20I 



Washington and wanted to succeed him as commander in 
chief. He refused to obey, and that compelled Washington 
to retreat farther into New 
Jersey to save his own 
troops from capture. 

193. Nathan Hale, the 
Patriot Spy. — During the 
campaign around New 
York, Washington was 
anxious to learn of the 
enemy's strength and 
plans. He called for a 
volunteer to undertake the 
dangerous work as a spy. 
Captain Nathan Hale, a 
brilliant young graduate 
of Yale College, but 
twenty-one years of age, 
volunteered and was ac- 
cepted. Disguised as a 
royalist schoolmaster he 
visited the British camps, 
got all the information 
wanted, and was returning 
to Washington when he 
was captured. He had 
made notes of the numbers 
of troops and maps of the 
forts. When he was taken before General Howe, those 
papers were found hidden in his shoes. The British gen- 
eral ordered him to be hanged as a spy before sunrise the 
next morning. Young Hale asked to see a chaplain, but 







Nathan Hale. 



From the Statue by Frederick MacMonnles in 
New York 



202 United States History for Schools 

was refused. He asked for a Bible and was again refused. 
He then wrote letters to his home and to his betrothed 
sweetheart These letters the cruel jailer tore up before 
the young man's face. But he had splendid courage. Just 
before death he spoke those words that true Americans 
will always remember to his honor : " I only regret that I 
have but one life to lose for my country." 

194. The Gloom over Washington's Retreat. — The 
jealous treachery of General Lee had caused Washington 
to make haste in his flight. He was closely pursued by a 
rnuch larger force of British troops. He burned bridges 
to delay them, and still on many occasions the Americans 
would be leaving one side of a town as the British entered 
at the other side. Washington's army was dwindling. 
Many of his soldiers had worn out their shoes. Many 
bloodstained footprints were left in the snow. By that 
time he had but three thousand men. 

Gloom settled down on the country. What hope was 
there in a small army running in distress from a superior 
enemy ? The end of the war was surely close at hand. 
The British felt sure of speedy success. Lord CornwalHs 
was so confident that he went to New York to pack his 
baggage for a trip to England. 

Washington, still undaunted, pushed on to the Delaware 
River and started to send his army across into Pennsyl- 
vania. He knew the British would soon follow, so he 
seized all the boats for nearly a hundred miles up and 
down the river. When the British troops did arrive, they 
had to sit down and wait for the river to freeze so they 
couldcross on the ice. 

195. Great Joy over the Victory at Trenton. — General 
Lee marched into New Jersey, but while asleep in a tavern 



First Half of the Revolution 203 

some distance from his troops he was made a prisoner by 
a small body of British dragoons. General Sullivan then 
took command of the American troops and soon found a 
way to join Washington. The leader then had about six 
thousand men, and he at once planned a bold enterprise. 
He had noticed that the British had divided their forces 
and left parts in different portions of New Jersey. He 
would surprise a body of Hessians left in Trenton. 

Washington took twenty-four hundred picked men, and 
on Christmas night began crossing the river. Blocks of 
ice in the swift stream made it hard work, but there were 
Massachusetts fishermen in the army. They manned the 
boats, and by four o'clock in the morning the army started 
on the nine-mile march to Trenton. The jolly German 
soldiers had been enjoying Christmas, wholly ignorant of 
the kind of tricks Santa Claus might play on them in Amer- 
ica. By daybreak they were awakened by the sounds of 
battle and very soon they were all prisoners. Washington 
had not lost a man. The country, in gloom and despair, 
did not believe the good news. But just as soon as it was 
found to be really true a wave of great joy swept over all 
the colonies. 

196. Robert Morris wins a Money Victory. — It was ex- 
tremely important for Washington to keep his little army 
together. At the end of the year many of the men would 
be entitled to go home. They knew they were sadly 
needed there, for the wives and children had no food. The 
only thing to keep them in the army was pay in good 
money to send home. Congress had been printing paper 
money called " Continental currency," but it had become 
of so little value that " Not worth a Continental " was a 
by-word, Washington wrote his troubles to his friend 



204 United States History for Schools 




ROHEKT MURKIS. 



Robert Morris, a successful merchant of Philadelphia, and 
begged him to send fifty thousand dollars in good, hard 
money. On New Year's morning 
(1777) Morris roused his Philadel- 
phia neighbors from their beds and 
soon had the money on its way to 
Washington. Morris had saved the 
army at a critical hour. 

197. " The Old Fox " slips out of 
a Trap. — Lord Cornwallis was aston- 
ished when he heard of the battle of 
Trenton. He quit packing his bag- 
gage and struck out for New Jersey. 
Leaving a guard at Princeton, he 
moved on to Trenton. On the night 
of January 2, 1 j'j'j, a small creek south of Trenton separated 
the camps of Washington and Cornwallis. The British 
general said, " At last we have run down the old fox and 
we will bag him in the morning." 

Washington left a few men to keep camp fires burning 
and to " make believe " building trenches, while he stole 
around the Cornwallis camp to Princeton, There Wash- 
ington personally led the attack on the British guard. 
Five hundred prisoners were captured, and Washington 
led his army into safe winter quarters near Morristown. 

In the morning Cornwallis found " the Old Fox " had 
slipped from his trap. He then heard of the battle of 
Princeton and of Washington's safe retreat. He decided 
to fall back near New York for fear his own supplies 
would be cut off by the crafty Americans. 

198. Valuable Recruits for America. — The unequal strug- 



gle of the Americans against so powerful an enemy, and 



First Half of the Revolution 



205 



especially the brilliant record of Washington's little army, 
excited the sympathy and admiration of liberty-loving men 
throughout the world. Some went so far as to offer their 
own services to the cause. Chief among these was a 
French nobleman, nineteen years of age, the Marquis 
de Lafayette. He arrived in the summer of 1777, and 
at once became the friend of Washington as well as a 
trusted and efficient officer in the American army. La- 
fayette brought with him a military expert, Baron de Kalb, 
who also became an officer in the American army. Two 
prominent Polish patriots, Generals Kosciusko and Pulaski, 
joined the group of valiant foreign helpers, and Baron 
Steuben of Prussia taught the American soldiers much 
military science. At first he had a hard time and com- 
plained of it. The Americans were by their forest train- 
ing the best marksmen in the world. But the forest had 
also given them a spirit of free- 
dom. The Prussian drill master 
said : " In Europe I tell the sol- 
dier to do this and he does it. 
In America I must tell the sol- 
dier why I want it done before 
he will do it." 

199. The British Plan for 1777. 
— This time the British govern- 
ment proposed to make sure of 
dividing the colonies by se- 
curing control of the Hudson 
River. General Burgoyne with 
an army of eight thousand men 
was to march from Canada to the Hudson by way of Lake 
Champlain. General St. Lcger with another army was to 




Marquis de Lafayette. 



2o6 United States History for Schools 

go to Lake Ontario and from Oswego march to the Hudson 
by way of the Mohawk Valley. General Howe was to send 
an army up the Hudson from New York. The three British 
armies were to meet at Albany. That was a strong plan, 
and if successful would certainly prove serious to the 
American cause. Washington must have known of this 
plan, for, on quitting winter quarters at Morristown, he 
marched into New York State. 

200. General Howe captures Philadelphia. — Why Gen- 
eral Howe abandoned his part of the Hudson River cam- 
paign and chose, instead, to capture Philadelphia was a 
mystery. It remained a mystery for eighty years (§ 207). 
Washington was surprised when he learned of the change 
of plan, and he hastily marched southward to protect 
Philadelphia. As Howe's fleet sailed along the coast it 
was heralded by patriotic signal fires and messengers. 

General Howe called Philadelphia the " rebel capital." 
He was anxious to capture it, but he was afraid to sail 
up Delaware Bay, so proceeded to march overland from 
Chesapeake Bay. Washington had been watchful and 
decided to check the British at Brandywine Creek. The 
British greatly outnumbered the Americans. Washington 
lost the battle (September 1 1, 1777) and among his wounded 
was young Lafayette. However, Washington retreated in 
good order and continued to delay the British. He entered 
Philadelphia, where the people were anxious for another 
effort before the city should be given up. Washington 
marched out for another battle, but a drenching storm wet 
the powder of both armies and the battle was not fought. 
Congress moved out of Philadelphia and Howe entered the 
city in triumph (September 26, 1777). Washington at- 
tacked him at Germantown (October 4), but was driven 



First Half of the Revolution 207 

back and then went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. 
The great value of Washington's campaign around Phil- 
adelphia is best understood when it is remembered that 
Howe was prevented from finishing the capture of that 
city early enough to send the needed help to Burgoyne up 
the Hudson River. 

201. Our New Flag at Fort Stanwix. — In marching from 
Oswego General St. Leger encountered the Americans in 
Fort Stanwix and began a siege. The brave defenders 
rushed out against part of the British troops and captured 
five British flags. These they hung upside down and above 
them was flying a rude flag made of scraps of red flannel 
and white and blue cloth. It was the first appearance of 
the stars and stripes, recently adopted by Congress. Be- 
fore that there had been a number of flags used, including 
one of the stripes bearing the figure of a rattlesnake and 
the warning words : " Don't tread on Me." 

When General Schuyler heard of the siege at Fort Stan- 
wix, he sent Benedict Arnold to help, and General St. Leger 
retreated to Oswego. His part of the British plan was a 
failure. 

202. Burgoyne at first Successful. — At the time Howe 
was sailing from New York to capture the "rebel capital," 
Burgoyne left Canada with his fine army and with the best 
collection of cannons yet seen in America. He captured 
the strong fort of Ticonderoga, and when the news was 
told to King George, he clapped his hands and shouted : " I 
have beat them ; I have beat all the Americans." It was 
a brilliant start and Burgoyne marched toward the Hudson 
with every promise of success. He had no way of know- 
ing that St. Leger would fail and that Howe would not 
perform his part of the programme. 



2o8 United States History for Schools 



203. The Battle of Bennington. — General Schuyler, in 
command of the Americans, was busy burning bridges, 
cutting trees across the roads and making them as difficult 
as possible. Burgoyne found the way as bad as a wilder- 
ness. Part of the time he could not make more than a 
mile a day with his troops and cannons. His horses were 
worn out with the hard work and his supply of food was run- 
ning low. Just then he heard of a supply both of food and 
horses which the Americans had collected at Bennington, 
Vermont. He sent a thousand Hessians to capture the 
supplies. He did not know that General John Stark was 
there with a thousand undrilled but brave men and Seth 
Warren, also, with five hundred frontiersmen. It is re- 
ported that when the Hessians came in sight. Stark called 
out, " There they are, boys ; we beat them to-day or 
Mollie Stark's a widow." In the battle that followed the 
Hessians were beaten. All but about one hundred were 
killed or captured. Burgoyne had lost a valuable part of his 
army and he had also "lost" the needed supplies. Washing- 
ton, when he heard of the battle, called it a " great stroke." 

204. Surrender of Burgoyne (October 17, 1777). — Gen- 
eral Burgoyne was in a terrible plight. St. Leger had 
failed, the Hessians had lost at Bennington, and, above 
all, his messages to Howe and Clinton had brought none 
of the promised help from New York. The American 
General Lincoln with New England troops cut off his 
supplies from Canada. Nothing remained but to fight 
his way down the Hudson. He was defeated in the 
battle of Bemis Heights (September 19) and the battle 
of Stillwater (October 7), and when surrounded at Sara- 
toga, he surrendered (October 17) his entire army of six 
thousand men to General Horatio Gates. 



First Half of the Revolution 209 

One of the shameful things of the whole war was the 
action of Congress when it took the command of this 
army away from General Schuyler and gave it to General 
Gates just as the victory was in sight. The credit of the 
victory belongs not to General Gates but to Schuyler and 
to Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan, who were splendid 
leaders in the fighting. Morgan was from Virginia and 
commanded five hundred sharpshooters. There was a 
boastful story about those wonderful sharpshooters to the 
effect that any one of them could toss an apple into the 
air and shoot all the seeds out of it before it reached 
the ground. 

The surrender of Burgoyne and the battles that just 
preceded it are usually grouped under the one name of 
battle of Saratoga. 

205. Importance of the Battle of Saratoga. — The battle 
of Saratoga is ranked as one of the important battles in 
the world's history. It was the turning point in the 
American Revolution. It produced three important re- 
sults : — 

First, it allowed the Americans to retain control of 
the Hudson River and thus prevented the separation of 
New England from the rest of the colonies. 

Second, it caused the king to offer America peace on 
any terms short of absolute independence. 

Third, it caused France to enter the war openly against 
Great Britain and in favor of America. 

206. The Conway Cabal. — We have seen that General 
Charles Lee was jealous of Washington and disobeyed his 
orders (§ 192). General Gates was also a jealous man 
(§ 218). He was not only willing to accept all the un- 
earned glory of Saratoga, but he even tried to use that 



2IO United States History for Schools 

glory to crowd himself into the position held by Wash- 
ington. The unmanly scheme was joined by friends of 
the two disgruntled generals. Among them was a man 
named Conway. When the people awoke to the trick, 
they called those schemers the "Conway Cabal," and 
turned with greater devotion to the reserved, dignified, 
and patriotic Washington. 

207. Why Howe broke up the Plan of 1777. — General 
Charles Lee was not a relative of the patriotic Lees of 
Virginia. He was a "soldier of fortune" from England. 
He had a wonderful experience throughout the world and 
had everywhere quarreled with his superior officers. When 
he was captured by the British (§ 195), the Americans, 
ignorant of his real treachery, thought only of his military 
talent and deemed his capture a great loss. He had been 
put on a ship to be sent to England for trial, when Howe 
received a letter from Washington offering to exchange five 
captured Hessian officers for General Lee. After a year 
of correspondence Great Britain consented to exchanging 
Lee as a prisoner of war. 

During the long wait Lee again displayed his treachery. 
He drew up in writing a plan of campaign for General 
Howe. He was to capture Philadelphia, and the Hudson 
River was to be left for Burgoyne and St. Leger. After 
the disaster at Saratoga Howe was ashamed to acknowl- 
edge that he had disobeyed his government's orders on 
the advice of such a man as Lee. Eighty years later 
(1858) and long after the death of General Howe there 
was found the telltale paper in the handwriting of Lee. 
The mystery of Howe's disobedience was then revealed 
(§ 200). 

208. The Dreary Winter at Valley Forge. — In spite of 



First Half of the Revolution 211 

the glorious victory at Saratoga, Washington's army at 
Valley Forge could not realize that the turning point in 
the war had been reached. The soldiers suffered terri- 
bly. Washington complained tO Congress that nearly three 
thousand of his men were unfit for dujy because they 
were barefoot and had little clothing. Food was scarce 
and the log huts furnished poor shelter against the frost 
and snow. One good thing was done in the midst of the 
gloom. Baron Steuben drilled the men so well that when 
clothing arrived, they marched forth an army ready for 
hard fighting. 

There is a tender Quaker story of Valley Forge. Isaac 
Potts on drawing near the camp heard a voice, and peer- 
ing through the woods, he saw Washington on his knees 
in the snow, his cheeks wet with tears, praying to God for 
help and guidance. On reaching home. Potts exclaimed 
to his wife : — 

" George Washington will succeed ! George Washington 
will succeed ! The Americans will win their independ- 
ence ! " 

" What makes thee think so, Isaac } " 

" I have heard him pray, Hannah, out in the woods to- 
day, and the Lord will surely hear his prayer. He will, 
Hannah ; thee may rest assured He will." 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. What were " Minute Men," and how did they behave at Concord 
and Lexington ? 

2. How did Washington approach his task as military leader ? 

3. Why did the colonials aim at Canada ? 

4. Show how the defeat at Bunker Hill was really a victory for the 
Americans. 

5. Describe Washington's journey from Philadelphia to Cambridge. 



212 United States History for Schools 

6. Tell of the siege of Boston. 

7. For whom was Fort Moultrie named ? 

8. Who were the principal rulers of Europe in 1776 ? 

9. Discuss the fighting strength of Great Britain and America in 
1776. 

ID. Tell how the Declaration of Independence was framed, signed, 
and announced. 

11. Why was the control of the Hudson River important ? 

12. Describe the treachery of General Charles Lee. 

13. What were the last words of Nathan Hale, the patriot spy ? 

14. Why was Washington's retreat a cause for gloom ? 

15. How did he transform that gloom into a burst of joy ? 

16. Describe the money victory by Robert Morris. 

17. Why did Cornwallis call Washington "the Old Fox" ? 

18. Tell of the famous recruits from Europe. 

19. Why did General Howe abandon the Hudson River campaign ? 

20. Tell of the new flag at Fort Stanwix. 

21. Why was the battle of Saratoga one of the world's decisive 
battles ? 

22. What is meant by the Conway Cabal ? 

23. Describe the dreary winter at Valley Forge. 



CHAPTER XVII 

SECOND HALF OF THE REVOLUTION 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 173-182 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 1 51-160. 

Home Readings. — Bryant's Song of Marion's Men ; Churchill's 
Richard Carvel; Cooper's Spy; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. II., pp. 
229-309; Lessing's Two Spies; McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, 
Vol. II., pp. 124-149 (George Rogers Clark) ; Mitchell's Hugh Wynne; 
Sparks's Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 191-150 (Robert Morns) ; 
Thompson's Alice of Old Vincennes. 

209. France becomes America's Ally. — The Americans 
knew that France still "hated England, though the two 
countries were then at peace. France could not so soon 
forget the treaty (1763) she called "The Shameful." As 
soon as the Declaration of Independence was signed, 
therefore, Congress sent agents to France seeking aid 
against England. These agents were Benjamin Franklin, 
Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee. Franklin had become fa- 
mous through his " Poor Richard's Almanac " and other 
writings. The French people manifested great regard for 
him. He wrote home that he saw everywhere in the shop 
windows of Paris images of himself in plaster and even in 
cookies and cakes. 

For two years these agents got help in secret. France 
sent money and shiploads of clothing and ammunition. 
It was not such a secret as it was supposed to be, for it 
was mentioned in debates in the British Parliament. Still 
Great Britain did not want war with France and both 
countries just pretended it was a secret. But after the 

213 



214 United States History for Schools 

battle of Saratoga France was convinced that America 
had a chance to win her struggle and then she came out 
into the open. She acknowledged the United States of 
America to be an independent nation, signed a treaty of 
alliance (February 6, 1778), and prepared to send a fleet 
of warships and an army of four thousand men to aid the 
American cause. 

210. Great Britain awake at Last. — If Great Britain 
thought she was punishing the colonies as unruly children, 
she was certainly aroused by the action of France into a 
realization that there was a real war on hand. Before it 
ended, she had Spain and Holland as additional enemies. 
Great Britain ruled the sea, but she had colonies to defend 
in all parts of the world. At one time she had in those 
widely separated wars more than' three hundred thousand 
men under arms. As soon as she declared war against 
France she tried to make peace with America. She re- 
pealed the hated and illegal taxes and all the other measures 
that had brought about the troubles in the colonies. She 
offered peace on almost any terms if the colonies would 
only remain parts of Great Britain. If this had come ten 
years before during the taxation troubles, all might have 
been different. The offer came too late. The colonies 
had determined to be free and independent states. 

211. Philadelphia abandoned by the British. — General 
Howe was succeeded by Sir Henry Clinton as commander 
of the British forces in America. Hearing that the French 
fleet was on its way, Clinton marched out of Philadelphia 
to get most of his troops together in greater safety at 
New York. Washington followed to strike the best blow 
he could at the retreating army. General Charles Lee had 
been exchanged and was then with Washington's army. 



Second Half of the Revolution 215 

He opposed Washington's plan, but when Lafayette was 
given charge of the attacking troops, Lee changed his 
mind and Washington let him take Lafayette's place. As 
the battle of Monmouth (June 28, 1778) was about to be 
a fine victory, Lee ordered a retreat. Lafayette notified 
Washington, who rode up in time to order a bayonet charge 
and save the day. He ordered the traitor Lee to the rear, 
and soon afterwards he was dismissed from the army. 

The British left the wounded on the fields at Monmouth 
and hurried into New York. Washington stretched his 
army from Morristown, New Jersey, to West Point, New 
York. He thus had the British army partly surrounded. 
The American guard left at Philadelphia was in command 
of Benedict Arnold. 

212. George Rogers Clark in the West. — For two years 
(1778 and 1779) Washington and Clinton spent most of 
their time watching each other around New York, but 
during that time important events were taking place in the 
West. The British hoped to keep that region wild (§ 159) 
for the use of Indians and for their own profitable fur trade. 
Such a plan would also help them shut in the rebellious 
colonies between the mountains and the Atlantic. But 
bands of brave men, called frontiersmen or backwoods- 
men, had gone over into those Western lands led by such 
famous hunters as Daniel Boone, John Sevier, James 
Robertson, and George Rogers Clark. 

To check these settlements in the West, the British stirred 
up Indian enemies. The Iroquois, who had so long fought 
the French, were used by the British against colonists of 
their own race. Horrible massacres were the result in 
Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania, and in Cherry Valley, 
New York. Washington sent an army under General 



Second Half of the Revolution 



217 



Sullivan to punish those Indians. He burned about forty 
Indian villages and completely destroyed the power of the 
Iroquois in New York State. 

Hamilton, the British governor in the Ohio country, 
offered a price for white men's scalps. The Indians 
spread terror in that re- 
gion. Against them, 
and especially against 
their British leaders, 
George Rogers Clark 
marched his little army 
of backwoodsmen. In 
the spring of 1 778 Clark 
and his two hundred 
men built flatboats and 
floated down the Ohio. 
If they could capture 
the British forts, they 
could hold the country 
and'control the Indians. 
Some hunters served as 
guides when they left 
the river to march 
against Kaskaskia. 
This IlUnois fort they surprised and captured. They also 
captured Cahokia, and the garrison at Vincennes sur- 
rendered without a fight. 

213. Courageous March in Midwinter. — Hamilton was 
surprised at Clark's victories. At Detroit he gathered an 
army of white men and Indians. He marched down against 
Clark's smaller force of pioneers. He easily captured Vin- 
cennes and probably would have captured Clark and the 




George Rogers Clark. 



21 8 United States History for Schools 

other posts if he had marched at once. But he decided to 
wait for spring. He cut his garrison at Vincennes down to 
eighty men. Of course Hamilton would expect reenforce- 
ments, including his Indians, in the spring. Clark was a 
long way from home. There was no way for him to get 
help. He therefore decided on a bold undertaking. Vin- 
cennes was two hundred and forty miles from Kaskaskia. 
Clark proposed to march his men that distance in mid- 
winter. It was a terrible journey. For days the men 
walked through water and floating ice up to their breasts. 
Food was scarce and during the last two days there was 
no food at all. They were desperate and attacked the 
fort with such vigor that Hamilton and his garrison sur- 
rendered. 

The armies were small, but it was still a great victory. 
The whole Ohio country was in possession of the Ameri- 
cans. The way was opened for the westward movement 
of a new nation, an expansion, the record of which is one 
of the marvels of the world. 

214. " Mad Anthony " and " Light-horse Harry." — The 
regular highway from New England to the South crossed 
the Hudson River at King's Ferry. The Americans sought 
to protect the route by a fort on each side of the river. 
On the west side the fort was at Stony Point. Soon after 
it was built, the British captured it. This was a serious 
matter and Washington selected one of his most dashing 
generals to retake it. This was General Anthony Wayne. 
It was said of him : " Where Wayne went there was fight 
always; that was his business." On account of his dash 
and bravery he was called " Mad Anthony Wayne." He 
surprised the fort at Stony Point, and captured it in a night 
attack by a hand-to-hand fight with empty guns and fixed 



Second Half of the Revolution 219 

bayonets. For this he received a gold medal from Con- 
gress. 

Paiilus Hook, now a part of Jersey City, was fortified 
by the British, who used it to worry the farmers and settlers 
of New Jersey. Washington sent against this fort Major 
Henry Lee, one of the Virginian Lees, who was known by 
the affectionate name of " Light-horse Harry " on account 
of his swift-moving cavalry. He captured Paulus Hook 
and got one hundred and sixty prisoners. He also received 
a gold medal from Congress. 

215. Beginning of the American Navy. — Great Britain's 
sea power gave her an immense advantage over the Ameri- 
cans. Her fleets could blockade any port they chose, they 
could move armies long distances while the Americans 
could not hope to catch up by the slower travel on land. 
Those fleets could also keep the armies supplied with food, 
clothing, weapons, and ammunition from England, while the 
Americans got their supply with great difficulty. When 
the French joined the war. Great Britain had much greater 
need for her sea power. Not only must she watch and 
fight the French fleets, she must also guard her many posts 
and colonies. 

But Great Britain was worried on the sea by the Ameri- 
cans as well as by the French. Most of this work was 
done by privateers. These were private ships whose cap- 
tains got letters from Congress authorizing them to fight 
or make prizes in the name of the United States. If they 
were captured, those letters would entitle them to be treated 
as prisoners of war, but if they had no letters of that kind, 
they would have been treated as pirates. The prize money 
was shared by the crews, and, though risky, the service paid 
so well that thousands of New England fishermen and sailors 



■2 20 United States History for Schools 



entered it. British merchants began to complain about the 
war because they lost so many valuable cargoes to those 
American privateers. 

216. John Paul Jones captures the Serapis. — But the 
greatest victory on the sea for the Americans was that of 
John Paul Jones, who is sometimes called the " Father of 
the American Navy." In a small ship called the Ranger he 

startled Great Britain by 
saiHng among the British 
Isles and making rich cap- 
tures. After the French 
treaty he got a few French 
ships and named one Bon 
Homme Richard, in honor 
of his friend Benjamin 
Franklin, whose pen name 
was " Poor Richard." In 
this ship, off the coast of 
England, he fought the 
duel with the British man- 
of-war Serapis, which made 
his name famous for all 
Begun in the evening (Sep- 
tember 23, 1779), the fight raged on into the night. When 
the deck was covered with dead and wounded, the rigging 
shattered, the ship leaking, Jones was asked if he " had 
struck," to which he replied, " I have not begun to fight." 
As the two ships, fighting like demons, touched each other, 
Jones lashed them together. One or the other must yield 
or both would sink fighting. The Serapis caught fire, 
the Richard was slowly sinking, and still they fought. 
At last the British captain surrendered. The loss of the 




John Paul Jones. 
time in the annals of the sea. 



Second Half of the Revolution 221 

one ship would not cripple the strong British navy, but 
Great Britain, as well as the other nations of the world, 
would have greater respect for such courage and such de- 
termination to win independence as the Americans had 
displayed in that duel. 

217. Captain James Cook in the Pacific. — During the 
long strife on land and sea there was one British captain 
who was not molested by privateers or French cruisers. 
This was James Cook, who did so much for scientific navi- 
gation and geography by his three great voyages of dis- 
covery in the Pacific. On the last of these voyages (1778) 
he discovered and named Cape Flattery, the northwestern 
corner of the United States, Cook's Inlet in Alaska, and 
other geographical points. His reports of the furs to be 
obtained on that western coast helped to start a great rush 
of fur traders into that region. Early in 1779 Cook was 
killed in an unfortunate quarrel with the natives of what 
he had called the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii). 

218. Clinton turns British Attention to the South. — As 
matters stood in the North, Clinton could hope for no 
great success there. He had failed to stop New England's 
communications with the South, and Washington held the 
strong fort at West Point. He decided to turn attention 
to the South. Georgia was weak, and there were many 
English sympathizers, or Tories, in the two Carolinas. By 
conquering and holding those regions he would at least 
cut off that much from the new United States. 

The British had already conquered Savannah (1778), but 
an American army, under General Lincoln, held Charles- 
ton. Using England's ever ready sea power, Clinton took 
a large army south and easily surrounded Lincoln's army 
of three thousand men, which was compelled to surrender 



222 United States History for Schools 

(May 12, 1780). Clinton then left Lord Cornwallis in 
command while he sailed back to New York. 

General Gates, the official victor at Saratoga, was sent 
by Congress to take the place of the captured Lincoln. 
As he left, his friend General Charles Lee said to him, 
" Take care that your Northern laurels do not change to 
Southern willows." Sure enough, they did. Camden was 
a strong point where the Southern roads met. He tried to 
secure it, but Cornwallis attacked him and so nearly de- 
stroyed the American army (August 16, 1780) that Gates 
fled for his life, and soon after left the army. It ought to 
be remembered that, with all his faults (§ 206), Gates had 
many good qualities. Soon after the war he freed all his. 
slaves and provided for those who needed help. He and 
his wife freely spent a fortune of more than four hundred 
thousand dollars helping Revolutionary officers and soldiers, 
A big monument at Schuylerville, near Saratoga, New 
York, contains statues of Gates, Schuyler, and Morgan. 
There is a fourth niche for a statue. It is empty. Under 
it is the name of Arnold. 

219. The Treason of Benedict Arnold. — In sharp con- 
trast to the glory won for his adopted country by John 
Paul Jones (who was a native of Scotland) was the blot of 
treason put upon the new flag of his native land by Bene- 
dict Arnold. He had richly earned a fine reputation for 
bravery and skill as an officer. He was given command of 
the guard at Philadelphia (§ 21 1) because the wounds re- 
ceived at Saratoga unfitted him for field duty. The life in 
Philadelphia was the cause of his downfall. He lived 
high, got in debt, and was court-martialed for some dis- 
honest transaction. The verdict called for a reprimand 
from the commander in chief. Washington loved Arnold 



Second Half of the Revolution 



223 



as a soldier. His reprimand was therefore robbed of all 
stinging words. 

But Arnold felt that he was unfairly treated. He 
wanted revenge and he wanted money, so he planned a 
great crime. He told Washington his wounds still troubled 
him and asked for command of the very important fort at 
West Point. When he got command, he began a long series 
of negotiations with Clin- 
ton at New York for the 
purpose of betraying the 
fort into the hands of the 
British. Major Andre 
was returning to New 
York from an interview 
with Arnold when he was 
captured by Americans. 
In his stockings were 
found the papers that 
caused him to be hanged 
as a spy. The fort at 
West Point was saved. 

Arnold, warned in 
time, escaped to the Brit- 
ish. He became an 
officer against his own 
countrymen. After one battle he had a captured Yankee 
captain brought before him. " What do you suppose," 
asked Arnold, " the Americans would do with me if I were 
captured ? " The prisoner squared his shoulders, and, look- 
ing Arnold in the face, replied : " What would they do .'' 
They would cut off the leg that was wounded at Quebec 
and give it a military funeral. The rest of your body they 
would hang to the nearest tree." 




Major John Andre. 



224 United States History for Schools 

Like traitors everywhere, Arnold was despised by all 
honest men. He went to England at the end of the war 
and probably never knew another happy day. When he 
felt death approaching, he called for his American " regi- 
mentals " and said: "Let me die in the old uniform in 
which I won my battles. May God forgive me for ever 
putting on any other." 

220. Cornwallis checked in North Carolina. — As soon as 
he had defeated Gates, Cornwallis marched into North 
Carolina. He was checked and turned back into South 
Carolina by an unlooked-for event. Knowing there were 
many Tories in the mountains of South Carolina and the 
southern part of North Carolina, he had sent a force of 
twelve hundred men to enlist their active support for the 
British side. As the army reached King's Mountain, 
they were met by a body of hastily collected backwoods- 
men. It could not be called an army, but the men were 
of the forest and were splendid marksmen. They sud- 
denly began shooting from three sides (October 7, 1780). 
The leader of the British was killed, and his entire force 
was either killed or captured. Cornwallis could not risk 
another such stunning blow and hastened back to South 
Carolina. 

221. '* The Swamp Fox " and Others. — Clinton thought 
that most of the people of South Carolina were Tories. In 
this he was sadly mistaken. Before sailing for New York, 
he had sent word into the interior of the state that those 
who did not help restore the royal British government 
would be treated as traitors. This produced a horrible 
condition of irregular warfare between the royalists and 
patriots, men who had been neighbors, though they had 
not agreed on the purpose of the war. In those fights the 



Second Half of the Revolution ^ 225 

Americans or patriots were led by such men as Pickens, 
Sumter, and Marion. They had small but swift forces of 
men, and no one could tell when or where they would dash 
out of a swamp or a forest to strike a blow. No British for- 
aging party was safe from attack. Marion was called "the 
Swamp Fox." Sumter's name was given to a fort that 
became famous in later years. 

When Clinton heard of what was done by such leaders 
and their men, he must have been ashamed of the letter he 
wrote from Charleston to the British ministry. In that 
letter he wrote : " I may venture to assert that there are 
few men in South Carolina who are not either our prisoners 
or in arms with us." 

222. General Nathanael Greene in the South. — Quakers 
do not believe in war. Nathanael Greene, a native of 
Rhode Island, was brought up a strict Quaker. Though 
he was expelled from that church when he joined the army, 
he still loved the simple Quaker religion. He was one of 
the very best officers in the American army, and had the 
full' respect of Washington. After the Arnold treason 
Greene was placed in command of West Point. He was 
there but a short time when he was ordered south to take 
the place of the defeated Gates. The Southern army was 
badly broken up and discouraged. The British army was 
strong, elated by success, and ably led by Lord Cornwall is, 
Lord Rawdon, and the dashing cavalry leader Tarleton. 
The British started for North Carolina, and Tarleton rushed 
on ahead with eleven hundred men. Greene divided his 
forces so they could move more quickly and have a better 
chance of getting food. One part of his army, under Mor- 
gan, met Tarleton at Cowpens (January 17, 1781) and in- 
flicted a loss of two hundred and thirty killed and wounded 
and took six hundred prisoners. 

Q 



226 United States History for Schools 

Cornwallis was furious at this heavy loss. He dropped 
all his heavy luggage and gave chase to Morgan. Greene 
brought his force up to Morgan's and retreated toward the 
north, where he expected reenforcements. When they 
arrived, he turned and gave Cornwallis battle at Guilford 
Court House (March 15, 1781). It was a British victory, but 
almost as bad as a defeat. Cornwallis had lost many men, 
and he was so far from his base of supplies he could not 
afford to follow Greene for another battle. He turned 
toward the coast at Wilmington, and Greene wrote to 
Washington that he would go into South Carolina and 
reconquer that state or make Cornwallis follow and fight 
him there. 

Greene was not only brave and skillful in attack, but he 
was a master of successful retreats and often robbed the 
enemy of the full fruits of victory. After Cornwallis 
started for Virginia, Greene marched south. He did not 
win every battle, but he gradually wore out the British 
troops until they all sought the shelter of their fleets and 
forts at Charleston and Savannah. With the exception 
of those two cities he reconquered all of South Carolina 
and Georgia. 

223. How " the Boy " Lafayette escaped Cornwallis. — 
CUnton sent Arnold into Virginia to do all the damage he 
could, and Washington sent Lafayette to check him. 
Lafayette was successful until Cornwallis arrived with his 
larger army and gave chase. He sent off a letter in which 
he said : " The boy cannot escape me," but the letter was 
captured and " the boy " had no mind for being caught. 
He got reenforcements from the north and from the 
French fleet. He then turned his successful retreat into 
an advance. Cornwallis went to Yorktown, as Clinton 



228 United States History for Schools 

had ordered him to be ready to send help in case the 
French fleet and army should combine with the Americans 
to capture New York. 

224. The Climax at Yorktown, October 19 (1781). — The 
time had come for the French to strike their heaviest blow. 
General Rochambeau had arrived with six thousand troops 
and was with Washington. Clinton expected the attack. 
But the French fleet went to Chesapeake Bay, and then 
Washington seized on a sudden and bold plan. Leaving 
a guard to watch the Hudson, he started with most of his 
own army and the French troops to join Lafayette and to 
capture Cornwallis. He had planned so secretly and 
moved so quickly that he had got to Maryland before 
Clinton saw the plan. 

The British fleet was then sent from New York to attack 
the French fleet, but was repulsed. Lafayette had cut off 
the line of retreat, and when Washington arrived, Corn- 
wallis and his army of eight thousand men were surrounded. 
There were sixteen thousand American and French 
troops on land. There was a French fleet in the harbor. 

CornwaUis and his army surrendered (October 19, 1781), 
and the American Revolution was practically ended. It is 
no wonder that Congress, on hearing the glorious news, 
adjourned and went to church in a body to offer up prayers 
of thanksgiving. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. State some of the reasons why France helped the Americans. 

2. Why was Great Britain's offer of peace rejected? 

3. Why did the British leave Philadelphia? 

4. Describe the campaign of George Rogers Clark in the West. 

5. How were the names "Mad Anthony " and " Light-horse Harry" 
obtained ? 

6. Describe the beginning of the American navy. 



Second Half of the Revolution 229 

7. Describe the great victory by John Paul Jones. 

8. What was the cause and what the resuh of Benedict Arnold's 
treason ? 

9. Where did Captain James Cook render his greatest service for the 
world ? 

10. Tell how Gates found ''Southern willows." 

11. Why was the battle of King's Mountain important? 

12. How did Marion, Pickens, and Sumter fight? 

13. What kind of general was Nathanael Greene? 

14. How did Lafayette outwit Cornwallis? 

15. Why is Yorktown called the climax of the Revolution? 



CHAPTER XVIII 

WINNING THE VICTORY OF PEACE 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 183-186 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp.161-163. 

Home Readings. — Ford's The True Benjamin FrankHn ; Morse's 
John Adams ; Scudder's George Washington. 

225. The News of Yorktown in Europe. — " It is all 

over ! " exclaimed Lord North, the Prime Minister of Eng- 
land, when he heard of Yorktown. While it did turn out 
that the fighting in America was really ended, the struggle 
was not " all over " by any means. The stubborn King 
George III. declared he would rather lose his throne than 
see America independent. He changed his mind on that 
point a little later, but the terms of peace were not easily 
settled. It is quite as important to learn about the great 
victory of peace as it is to study the battles of war. 

Before the battle of Yorktown was fought, Spain and 
Holland had been drawn into the war with America and 
France against Great Britain. Those three nations of 
Europe would be delighted with the great victory in America. 
But as they were parties to the war, they knew they would 
have to be parties to the peace. 

226. America's Peace Generals. — As Great Britain's 
king was angry and stubborn, and as there were many 
questions about the rights of the new nation that would 
have to be considered, it was important that America 
should use her best statesmen to do the work. The vener- 



Winning the Victory of Peace 



231 



able and able Benjamin Franklin was still in Paris. Con- 
gress selected as his helpers John Adams and John Jay. 
It took nearly two years of hard work to secure the final 
treaty of peace, but when the paper was signed at last, the 
statesmen had 
won a victory 
just as great 
as any won by 
Washington, his 
officers, and 
men. 

2 2 7. The 
Statesmen dis- 
obey Congress. 
— France had 
been so helpful 
that Congress, 
out of gratitude, 
ordered the 
statesmen to 

make no treaty 

. , „ Benjamin 1 k \Nki in. 

without first con- 
sulting the French government. But the statesmen found 
that France desired to keep America a small nation so she 
might herself regain some advantage in the new world. 
The younger men, Adams and Jay, decided to disobey the 
orders of Congress by dealing with Great Britain directly 
and without consulting France. After it was all completed, 
they sent the adroit old Franklin to explain to the French 
ministers and to calm their indignation. 

A preliminary treaty was signed (November 30, 1782), 
and, while that did not wholly settle matters, it meant that 




232 United States History for Schools 



the war in America was almost at an end. The British 
soldiers remained in New York, but it seemed sure that an 
understanding with the mother country was within reach. 
228. Would America have a King ? — The people of 
Europe expected America to choose a king as soon as she 
got her independence. They knew of Washington's peer- 
less leadership and 
they expected he 
would be the king. 
That had been the 
way of the world up 
to that time. Besides 
nobody thought it at 
all possible that a 
republic could suc- 
ceed over so large a 
territory. 

The same idea was 
held by many people 
in America, and the 
new nation was in real 
danger of being 
turned into a mon- 
archy. The govern- 
ment under Congress 
was weak. It could not raise money to pay the army. The 
officers and soldiers were angry. They selected Colonel 
Lewis Nicola, an old and loved officer, to invite Washing- 
ton to become king (1782). Evidently the army was 
ready to take part in another revolution, if necessary, to 
put Washington on the throne. Washington replied to the 
Nicola letter in such strong terms that there was left not a 




John Adams. 



Winning the Victory of Peace 233 

shred of doubt of how he hated the very suggestion of an 
American monarchy. Jefferson afterwards said, " The 
moderation and virtue of a single man prevented a revolu- 
tion." 

229. Washington's Spectacles. — The army was growing 
more and more dissatisfied at the neglect of Congress. 
General Knox wrote to Benjamin Franklin: "If justice is 
done to the army, they will become the bees and lambs of 
their communities ; but if not, the tigers ! " Early in 1783 
(March 10) a call was issued for a meeting of officers to 
decide what should be done. Affairs looked black. Wash- 
ington decided to go the meeting and calm the anger. 
He wrote out his remarks. As he opened the paper he 
took out his spectacles. " You see, gentlemen," said he, 
" I have grown both blind and gray in your service." He 
begged them to do nothing that would dim the glory they 
had won on the field and to make one more effort to get 
justice from Congress. The officers were deeply moved 
and did as he asked. That time Congress acted favorably 
toward the army, and a great danger was again averted 
by Washington. 

230. The King's Personal Rule Defeated. — While Wash- 
ington was standing like a wall of granite against accept- 
ing kingly power himself or allowing it to be conferred 
upon any other man in America, King George HI. was 
straining every nerve to keep what he believed was his 
right to rule as he pleased in the American colonies. The 
whole war had been a denial of that right. A final treaty 
of peace would be the end of such personal rule. The 
king knew it, but he was at last compelled to accept a 
new ministry friendly to America. 

231. Final Treaty of Peace (September 3, 1783). — The 



234 United States History for Schools 

» — 

three statesmen won their great triumph when the final 
treaty was signed. The United States of America was 
fully recognized as an independent nation by the mother 
country. 

That it was a great peace victory is shown by the fact 
that we retained the large area from the mountains to the 
Mississippi River conquered by George Rogers Clark and 
his frontier soldiers. We also retained fishing rights on 
the Newfoundland banks. 

In order to make peace more general, Great Britain gave 
Spain her old province of Florida. The new United States 
therefore extended from Florida to the Great Lakes and 
from the Mississippi River to the Atlantic Ocean. John 
Adams took up his duties as first United States Minister 
to Great Britain. 

232. Washington goes back to his Farm. — When the 
peace was declared in America, the British soldiers left 
New York (November 25, 1783), which city had been in 
their possession throughout the war. Washington then 
prepared to quit his work as a soldier. He gathered his 
officers and said to them : " With a heart full of love and 
gratitude, I now take leave of you. I most devoutly wish 
that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy as 
your former ones have been glorious and honorable. I 
cannot come to each of you to take my leave, but I shall 
be obliged if each one of you will come and take me 
by the hand." They had all learned to love, honor, and 
respect their great leader. As he finished speaking, each 
one stepped forward and in silence clasped his hand. 
Probably not one could have spoken without sobbing at 
that sad moment. 

Then Washington hurried away to Congress in session 



O « fH * g O = 




Winning the Victory of Peace 



^35 



in Annapolis. William Gordon, an English minister in 
this country at that time, tells how the galleries and floor 
of the hall were crowded with ladies and gentlemen, all 
anxious to see and hear the great Washington. He was 
dignified, though much embarrassed by the attentions 
shown him. He read a fine address to Congress, in which 
were these words : " I consider it as an indispensable duty 
to close this last act of my official life by commending the 
interestsof our dearest country to the protection of Almighty 
God, and those who have the superintendence of them to 
His holy keeping. Having now finished the work assigned 
me, I retire from the great theater of action, and biddin": 
an affectionate farewell to this august body, under whose 
orders I have so long acted, I here offer my commission, 
and take my leave of all the employments of public life." 




Mount Veknon. 



236 United States History for Schools 



He refused all pay for his eight years of service, and 
went straight to Mount Vernon, his beautiful home on the 
Potomac River, where visitors can to this day see the 
books and furniture he used, the garden he planted, and 
all the scenes he loved. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. How was the news of Yorktown received in Europe? 

2. Why did America's peace generals disobey Congress? 

3. Tell how Washington refused to be the American kmg 

4. How did Washington persuade his officers to be patient? 

5. How was the king's personal niie defeated? 

6. Show the greatness of the jieace victory. 

7. Describe Wasliington's farewell to his officers and to Congress. 

CHRONOLOGY 

1763 . . Proclamation of Quebec. 

1765 . . Stamp Act. 

Stamp Act Congress. 

1766 . . Repeal of the Stamp Act. 

1767 . . The Townshend Acts. 
1770 . . Tax on tea retained. 

Boston Massacre. 

1772 . Destruction of the revenue vessel Gaspee. 

1773 . . Boston Tea Party. 

1774 . . Home government adopted harsh measures. 

First Continental Congress met in Phiiadelpliia. 

1775 • • April 19. Hostilities begun at Lexington and Concord. 

Second Continental Congress. 
Capture of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 
June 15. Washington appointed commander in chief. 
June 17. Battle of Bunker Hill. 

1776 . . March 17. British troops left Boston. 

Attack on Fort Sullivan repulsed. 
July 4. Independence declared. 



Winning the Victory of Peace 237 

1776 . . August 27. Battle of Long Island. 

December 26. Battle of Trenton. 

1777 . . January I. Morris raised money for Washington's troops. 

January 3. Battle of Princeton. 

Arrival of Lafayette. 

June 14. Adoption of flag by Congress. 

September 11. Battle of Brandywine. 

September 26. Howe entered Pliiladel])hia. 

October 17. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga 

1778 . . February 6. Treaty of Alliance witli France. 

George Rogers Clark conquers Western forts. 

British vacate Philadelphia. 

Captain James Cook's discoveries in the Pacific. 

1779 . . September 23. John Paul Jones captured the ^'frrt/zV. 

1780 . . August 16. Battle of Camden. 

Treason of Benedict Arnold. 

October 7. Battle of King's Mountain. 

1781 . . January 17. Battle of Covvpens. 

Marcii 15. Battle of Guilford Court House. 
October 19. Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. 

1782 . . Washington refused to be made king by the army. 

November 30 Preliminary Treaty of Peace. 

1783 . . .September 3. Final Treaty of Peace. 

Washington went back to his farm. 



IV 

" The Critical Period 



J^ 



CHAPTER XIX 



THE INDEPENDENT STATES 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 189-199 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 164-166. 

Home Readings. — Fiske's The Critical Period ; Hart's Source Reader, 
Vol. ni., pp. 1-18 ; Stone and Ficketfs Days and Deeds, pp. 16-36. 

233. Name of the Period. — The Revolution had lasted a 
little more than eight years from the battle of Lexington 
(April 19, 1775) to the Treaty of Peace 
(September 3, 1783). The six years that 
followed from the Treaty of Peace to the 
organization of government under the Con- 
stitution were so full of doubt and trouble, 
even after Washington had removed the 
threat of a monarchy, that John Fiske, the 
historian, has called them the " Critical 
Period." 

234. The Change from Colony to State. — 

As soon as the Declaration of Independence 

was signed, the colonies realized that they 

Dress of a lady were changed from colonies to states. 

IN 1776. There would be no more royal governors 

sent over to them from England. They would have to elect 

and support their own governors, officers, and legislatures. 

238 




The Independent States 



239 



Rhode Island and Connecticut were satisfied to organize 
their new state governments by using their old charters 
as constitutions. The other colonies 
adopted new constitutions, and organ- 
ized new state governments. Many of 
the best men were proud to serve in 
the new offices, for they felt that they 
were laying foundations for great com- 
monwealths. 

235. Each State had its Problem. — 
Each state was proud of its history and 
its work. Each had great ambition 
for future growth and prosperity. But 
the war had left each a serious prob- 
lem to solve. That problem consisted 
of three parts : first, to repair the dam- 
ages inflicted by the war; second, to 
pay their debts ; third, to retain their 
liberties. 

236. The Problems create Jealous Quarrels. — Time and 
patient toil would be needed to repair the damages of the 
war. There was no way to bring back the soldiers who 
had fallen. The widows would bear their sorrow for a few 
years until they could join their hero-husbands in the other 
world. But the orphans would soon be old enough to aid 
the other workers in rebuilding the burned houses, barns, 
and fences. 

The states would have gladly paid their debts if they 
had had the money. There was very little coin in the 
country. On the other hand, there was too much paper 
money. Each state printed so much money that it declined 
in value. The people in one state would not accept the 




Dress of a Gentle- 
man IN 1776. 



240 United States History for Schools 

paper money of another. There was httle chance to pay 
debts, with real money scarce and paper money in such bad 
condition. 

In their anxiety to retain all their liberties, the states 
became jealous of the power of Congress, and they also 
became jealous and mean in their dealings with each other. 
New York levied a tax on vegetables from New Jersey and 
on firewood from Connecticut. New Jersey tried to get 
even by putting a heavy tax on a lighthouse New York 




Coach of the Old Days. 



had generously built on Jersey soil, and Connecticut tried 
to cut off all trade with New York. 

One writer has said the states were like a barrel of thir- 
teen stout staves without a hoop to hold them together. 

237. A Debt Rebellion in Massachusetts. — There was 
great trouble over the attempts to collect debts. The 
sheriffs seized the farmers' horses and cattle, and many 
men were arrested for not paying debts. The farmers 
were honest, but times were so hard they could not pay. 
Two thousand of them were led by Daniel Shays (1786) 
against the courthouses in western Massachusetts, where 



The Independent States 241 

they stopped all lawsuits for debt. They became violent, 
and tried to get arms and ammunition to start a war. It 
was a serious matter, and greatly alarmed Washington when 
he heard of it. After seven months of such disturbance, 
the militia drove the farmers to their homes and the 
" Shays Rebellion " was at an end. 

238. Land Claims of the States. — The lands lying west 
of the mountains were still looked upon as wild or open 
lands. There were some settlements of pioneers there, and 
a few were trying to form new and independent states. 
To whom did those lands really belong ? That was a great 
question after the war. New York claimed a large part of 
the Ohio country on account of a treaty she had made with 
the Iroquois Indians. They had conquered the other 
Indians there, and so claimed the right to cede the lands to 
New York. Six other states (Massachusetts, Connecticut, 
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia) 
claimed parts of the Western lands on account of the grants, 
usually "from sea to sea," in their original charters. But 
there remained six other states (New Hampshire, Rhode 
Island, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Mary- 
land) which had no such claims to put forth. However, 
they set up a different kind of claim. They held that those 
lands had been won from the British during the war by 
the united effort of all the states. The lands should there- 
fore belong to all the states. We shall see how the argu- 
ment won (§241), and if there was a hoop to bind the 
thirteen staves (§ 236), it was the joint ownership of those 
lands. 

239. The Green Mountain State. — The feeling of local 
independence was manifested in another way. The people 
in the northeastern part of New York State had decided to 



242 United States History for Schools 

withdraw from New York and form a new state of their 
own (1777). They had no legal right to do that, and the 
act was not recognized. Still they were stubborn about it, 
and somehow got along without a legislature and without 
sending delegates to Congress or to the New York legis- 
lature. They kept up that free and independent sort of 
existence until the new state was finally admitted to the 
Union (1791). During the Revolution they furnished 
brave soldiers who took pride in the pet name of " Green 
Mountain Boys." So when they sought a name for their 
new state, they chose a compound French word meaning 
" Green Mountain," and called it Vermont. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. What name has been given the six years from 1783 to 1789 ? 

2. When and how did the colonies change to states ? 

3. How did the new states show their jealousy ? 

4. What happened when efforts were made to collect debts in Mas- 
sachusetts ? 

5. Who claimed the lands in the West ? 

6. How did Vermont become a separate state? 



CHAPTER XX 

THE WEAK GENERAL GOVERNMENT 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 200-201 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 166-177. 

Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., 39-42 ; Sparks's 
Men Who Made the ISFation. pp. 1 51-180 (Hamilton). 

240. A Congress but No Constitution. — We have seen 
(§§ 1 77 and 181) how the First and Second Continental Con- 
gresses were organized simply by sending from the colonies 
delegates to devise ways for united action in resisting the 
mother country. There was no general constitution giving 
Congress authority to do anything. Before independence 
was declared, the resolution was sent to the colonies to get 
their consent or advice. After the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, and after the war began, Congress, from the 
nature of the case, had to assume certain powers. For 
example, it had to appoint a commander in chief and other 
officers of the army, to send agents to France for help, and 
to issue letters to the captains of private vessels who were 
ready to fight for the cause. 

Congress could not levy taxes. The states alone could 
do that, so Congress had continually to ask the states for 
money. When money was scarce. Congress did the same 
as the states, and printed paper money which soon became 
of no value. The " Continental Currency " was a great 
series of promises to pay, but there was no power behind 
them to make the promises good. 

243 



244 United States History for Schools 



241. The First Constitution. — When the committee was 
appointed to draw up the Declaration of Independence 
(§ 190) another committee was appointed to frame some 
kind of a constitution, or, as they called it. Articles of Con- 
federation. That was a hard question to settle. The 
committee reported one week after the Declaration of 




Brooklyn's First Fire Engine (1785). 

Independence was signed, but the debate lasted for more 
than a year. Even after Congress adopted the Articles of 
Confederation, four years elapsed before the last state 
would give its necessary approval. During those years 
Congress had to struggle on without any constitution 
at all. 

The one state that stood so firmly opposed was Mary- 
land. The cause of objection was the claims of those 



The Weak General Government 245 



seven states to the Western lands (§ 238). Maryland 
insisted that those lands belonged to all the states. After 
years of dispute, the states gave up to the nation their 
claims to the lands, and Maryland ratified the Articles 
of Confederation. That first Constitution of the United 
States went into effect March i, 1781. 

242. Character of the New Government. — Under that 
first weak Constitution the government had to finish the 
war and conduct public business during the troubled times 
following the Treaty of Peace. The important questions 
to be decided would have been a big task if the govern- 
ment had been strong, and, of course, the task was much 
greater because the government was weak. There was no 
money, and the army was making threats. That was one 
serious problem for the new government. Other problems 
included the making of laws for the Western lands, the 
regulation of commerce, the raising of revenue, and the 
dealings with foreign countries. 

The Continental Congress could give advice to and ask 
favors of the states, but it could not enforce its orders 
Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress could 
enact certain laws, but it had no executive power to compel 
obedience. Professor Hart of Harvard says the one was a 
"head without a body" and the other was a "body with- 
out a head." 

Congress tried to do everything by committees. If a 
hospital was to be built, if an order was to be issued, if a 
loan was to be raised, a committee was appointed for each 
purpose. Professor Van Tyne of the University cf 
Michigan says the Revolution was conducted by a "debat- 
ing society." 

243. Beginning of the Cabinet. — The first evidence of 



246 United States History for Schools 



breaking away from the weak system of committees for 
this, that, and the other thing was when Congress appointed 
secretaries for Foreign Affairs, War, and Finance. When 
peace came the Secretary of War had little to do, but the 

others were kept busy. 




Robert R. Livingston 
and, later, John Jay , both 
of New York, were the 
Secretaries of Foreign 
Affairs, and Robert 
Morris (§ 196) of Penn- 
sylvania was Superin- 
tendent of Finance. 

244. The "Magna 
Charta of the West." 
— By far the greatest 
law passed by Congress 
during the Confeder- 
ation was the "Ordi- 
nance of 1787." Three 
years before (1784) 
Thomas Jefferson had 
introduced into Con- 
gress a plan to govern 
the new Western lands. 
Though Jefferson was 
a Virginia slaveholder, his plan prohibited slavery in those 
lands. His proposed law was not enforced, and by 1787 
the need for a law was much greater, because many 
settlers had gone into the Ohio country from New Eng- 
land and elsewhere. To meet this need Congress passed 
the law which is known as the "Ordinance of 1787." 



Continental Paper Money. 



The Weak General Government 247 

This " Ordinance " was to be the basis of a government 
for the Northwest Territory, formerly called the Ohio 
country. It was a large area. Out of it have since grown 
the great states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and 
Wisconsin. The five important provisions of the " Ordi- 
nance " were as follows : — 

First, it provided for complete religious freedom in the 
territory. 

Second, it safeguarded the people's rights to the 
benefits of habeas corpus, trial by jury, and proportionate 
representation in the legislatures. 

Third, it provided a way for new states to be made from 
the territory, thus beginning the government's policy 
toward territories. 

Fourth, it provided for the establishment and encourage- 
ment of schools, saying that religion, morality, and knowl- 
edge are " necessary to good government and the hap- 
piness of mankind." 

Fifth, it prohibited slavery in the territory. 

These provisions were so strong on the side of freedom 
that the "Ordinance of 1787" is sometimes called the 
" Magna Charta of the West." That is a high compliment, 
for Magna Charta is one of the oldest ( 1 2 1 5 ) foundations of 
English liberty. 

245. Weakness of the Government Recognized. — Many 
people recognized the weakness of the government, and we 
shall soon see how they made efforts to give it greater 
strength. After the " Shays Rebellion " (§ 237) a speaker 
in a Massachusetts convention said : " People took up 
arms ; and then if you went to speak to them you had the 
musket of death presented to your breast. They would 
rob you of your property, threaten to burn your houses ; 



248 United States History for Schools 

obliged you to be on your guard night and day. — How 
terrible, how distressing was this ! — Had any one that was 
able to protect us come and set up his standard, we should 
all have flocked to it, even though it had been a monarch." 
How Hke an echo does this seem from the time (§ 228) 
when the army wanted to make Washington a king ! 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. How did Congress secure money during the Revolution ? 

2. What delayed the adoption of the Articles of Confederation? 

3. In what way was Congress in the Confederation period like a 
" debating society " } 

4. What were the beginnings of the American Cabinet ? 

5. Name the provisions of the " Magna Charta of the West." 

6. Did the people recognize the weakness of their government ? 



CHAPTER XXI 

BUILDING THE STRONG CONSTITUTION 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 201 -209 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 175-180. 

Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 45-79; 
Irving's Washington ; Longfellow's The Building of the Ship ; Stone and 
Fickett's Days and Deeds, pp. 36-53. 

246. Alexander Hamilton. — Alexander Hamilton came 
to this country from the West Indies when he was but six- 
teen years of age. He proved to be one of the most re- 
markable boys, and later one of the wisest men, in American 
history. At some of the exciting meetings just before the 
war Hamilton swayed great audiences with his wonderful 
eloquence, though he was still a schoolboy in age. Before 
he was twenty he had organized a battery of artillery, and 
became its capable captain in the war. Through this 
service and by his speaking and writing, he attracted the 
attention of Washington, who made him a member of his 
staff. While giving splendid service in that position, he 
found time to write many letters to prominent men urging 
the need of a stronger government. 

247. The Annapolis Convention (1786). — Virginia and 
Maryland had problems to solve, like the other states 
(§ 236). The rights of navigation on Chesapeake Bay 
and the Potomac River were in dispute. Commissioners 
met at Alexandria to consider that question. Washington's 
home was near that town, so they consulted him. They 
found so many questions of trade to consider that it was 

249 



250 United States History for Schools 




From the Statue by William Ordway Partridge. 

Alexander Hamilton. 



decided to invite all the states to send delegates to a trade 
convention at Annapolis. 

Hamilton saw that this was a good chance to advance 



Building the Strong Constitution 251 

the idea of a stronger government, so he persuaded New 
York to accept the invitation. The convention was a dis- 
appointment, as only five states sent delegates, and Hamilton 
was the only one of the three New York delegates who 
attended. Still Hamilton persuaded the little convention 
to do one important thing. That was to issue an invitation 
for all the states to send delegates to another convention 
at Philadelphia for the purpose of strengthening or amend- 
ing the Articles of Confederation. 

248. The Great Convention in Session (1787). — The 
idea of such a convention met with considerable opposition. 
Congress was timid, and the states were afraid of losing 
some of their power if they consented to a stronger general 
government. New York was opposed ; but Hamilton's 
eloquence prevailed, and New York accepted the invitation. 
Just at that time the debt rebellion (§ 237) broke out in 
Massachusetts. That was a timely argument in favor of a 
stronger government. Every state, except Rhode Island, 
sent delegates, and when they arrived (May 25, 1787) it 
was found that the ablest men of each state had been 
selected. Washington was there, and was made president 
of the convention. The venerable and loved Franklin, 
eighty-one years of age, was there to render a last service 
to his country. 

For nearly four months the convention remained at 
work in secret sessions. When they had finished, it was 
found that they had not amended the Articles of Confed- 
eration, as was at first proposed, but that they had framed 
a new constitution. It is reported that a number of dele- 
gates gathered around the chair of old Dr. Franklin, 
who said : " I understand artists, in painting, find it diffi- 
cult to distinguish between a rising and a setting sun. 



252 United States History fof Schools 

During our long sessions, amid my hopes and fears, I have 
wondered whether that picture above the president's chair 
was a rising or a setting sun. Now that our work is done, 
I am pleased to believe it is a rising sun." 

249. Some of the Provisions. — Many great and scholarly 
volumes have been published to explain what the Consti- 
tution means and where its provisions came from. The 
simplest explanation is that the Constitution came from 
the experiences of the people. In the home country they 
had had the king, his ministers, the House of Lords, the 
House of Commons, the courts, and the local parish boards. 
In the colonies they had governors, councils, assemblies, 
courts, and town or county boards. These experiences 
taught them to frame a Constitution providing for the 
executive, legislative, and judicial departments of govern- 
ment, and to leave all local matters for the states to man- 
age for themselves. 

The executive was to consist of the President. He was 
to be assisted by a group of secretaries, which is now 
called the Cabinet. For fear the President might die 
while in office, a Vice President was provided in order that 
he might at once take up the duties of President. It was 
made the duty of the Vice President to preside over the 
Senate. The method of choosing the President was not 
easily settled. The plan to allow him to be chosen by the 
Senate was rejected, because that would be too aristocratic. 
The plan to let the people choose him by direct vote was 
rejected, because that would be too democratic. The case 
was compromised by adopting an indirect form of election. 
Each state was to choose electors equal in number to the 
combined number of senators and representatives to 
which the state was entitled. Those electors were to vote 
for and elect the President and Vice President. 



Building the Strong Constitution 253 

There was much trouble over the legislative department. 
Before that, each state had had but one vote in Congress. 
In that way the small states had as much power as the 
large ones. The small states did not wish to lose that 
power. A compromise was reached. They would have 
two houses. In the Senate each state would be equal, with 
two senators ; in the House of Representatives each state 
would be represented according to its population. Of 
course the larger states would here have greater power. 
It was also thought there would be less hasty legislation if 
there were two houses. Before the convention Jefferson 
and Washington discussed the question at supper. Jeffer- 
son favored a Congress of one house. 

" Why," asked Washington, " did you pour that tea out 
in the saucer .'' " 

" To let it cool." 

" Exactly so. That is why we should have two houses. 
To let the laws cool before they are passed." 

In the judicial department the Constitution provided 
that there should be a Supreme Court and such other 
courts as Congress might provide by law. 

250. Compromise on Slavery and Commerce. — As trade 
quarrels between the states were among the chief reasons 
for seeking a stronger Constitution, it was provided that trade 
between the states should be free, but that Congress should 
have power to regulate such commerce as well as that with 
foreign countries. Congress was also given control of tariff 
and revenue laws. While arranging these matters, the ques- 
tion of slavery came up. A great war for freedom and in- 
dependence had been won, so the delegates apparently did 
not like the idea of slavery. At any rate, the word " slave " 
does not appear in the original Constitution. Slaves are 



2 54 United States History for Schools 



there mentioned as " other persons." In giving Congress 
control of commerce an exception was made that the im- 
portation of "such persons " (slaves) must not be stopped 
before 1808. The South did not want their slaves counted 

for purposes of 



taxation, and the 
North did not want 
them counted to 
give the South 
more representa- 
tives. A compro- 
mise was reached 
by which only three 
fifths of the " other 
persons" should be 
counted for the 
purposes both of 
direct taxation and 
of representation. 

251. Approval by 
the States.— When 
the convention had 
finished its work 
(September 17, 
1787), every one of 
the delegates pres- 
ent signed his 
name to the new Constitution. But before it could go into 
effect at least nine of the thirteen states must approve or 
ratify it. There then began long and bitter struggles in 
many of the states. Washington, Hamilton, Madison, and 
Jay were the principal leaders in favor of the adoption. 



and fpicedi}y wiH be piibliftiedj 
THE 

FEDERALIST, 

A Colle<Stion of EHays written iji fa 
Vw of the New Cbnftitutioh. 

By a Citizen (f New~Torh. 

Corrtdled by the Author, with Additions 
' and Altcratrons. 

. Thh ijucrk njoill be printed on a fiin Paper 
and gtodTjpt, in »>tehandfatne Volume duo- 
decifiio, I and delivered to fubfcribers at the 
moderate price rfene dollar i A fe-w copies 
tviJl be prsnled on JUperJine rojal ivriting pa- 
per t price ten Jbillmgt. 

No rnony required till diffverj. 

.7? render this 'work more complete, mill he 
eiddedf luitkout any additional txpence, 

PHILO-PUBLIUS, 

i.y^fl "THE 
Articles bf ' the Convention y 

At agreed upon at FbilaJelpbis, Septem- 
ber 17th, 178;. , 



Building the Strong Constitution 255 

Washington's great influence was felt everywhere. Ham- 
ilton, assisted by Madison and Jay, wrote eighty-six essays 
strongly in favor of the Constitution. They were collected 
into a book called the " Federalist," which is still counted 
one of the greatest books yet written on our Constitution. 

Madison won a great victory over Patrick Henry for 
approval in Virginia, but probably the greatest battle of 
oratory was in New York State. Two thirds of the con- 
vention was opposed, and yet Hamilton's wonderful logic 
and eloquence changed enough votes to win. The people 
of New York City celebrated the event. Sixteen milk- 
white horses drew through the streets a large *' Ship of 
State," and under it was painted in bold letters the word 
" Hamilton." 

The Constitution was nicknamed " The New Roof," 
and by February, 1788, eleven states had come under it. 
During the next two years the other two states (North 
Carolina and Rhode Island) joined the family and made 
it complete. 

252. Last of the Old Congress. — When the new Consti- 
tution was adopted, interest in the old Congress quickly 
died away. And yet it was necessary for that Congress 
to do three things. 

First, it voted that the new Constitution was ratified 
and would therefore take the place of the Articles of 
Confederation. 

Second, it arranged for the election of the new Con 
gress and other officers, and fixed on the first Wednesday 
in March, 1789, for them to assume office. 

Third, it fixed upon New York as the place for the new 
Congress to meet, and for the new government to begin 
its work. 



256 United States History for Schools 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. How did Hamilton attract the attention of Washington? 

2. What was the result of the trade convention at Annapolis? 

3. How long was the Constitutional Convention in session? 

4. What were the departments of government provided for by the 
Constitution ? 

5. How did it come about that there are two houses of Congress? 

6 Why did they leave the word "slave" out of the Constitution, 
and what did they use in place of that word ? 

7. There was a struggle to have the Constitution approved or 
ratified ; name some of the leaders on each side. 

8. What were the last acts of the old government ? 

CHRONOLOGY 

1781 . . Articles of Confederation ratified. 

1784 . . Jefferson's proposed ordinance for the Northwest. 

1786 . . Shays's Rebellion. 

The Annapolis Convention. 

1787 . . Northwest Ordinance, " Magna Charta of the West." 

May 25 to September 17. Constitution framed. 

1788 . . Constitution ratified by sufficient number of states. 
1 791 . . Vermont admitted as a state. 



V 

Testing the Constitution 

CHAPTER XXII 

ORGANIZING THE NEW GOVERNMENT 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp- 209-229 ; Harfs Source 
Book, pp. 181-188. 

Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader. Vol. HI., pp. 18-24, 271- 
274; Judson's Growth of the American Nation, pp. 103-115; Sjjarks's 
Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 181-217 (Washington). 

253. Washington, the First President. — When the elec- 
tors chosen for the purpose met to cast their votes for 
the first President, it was found that every one of them 
had voted for Washington. He was the only President 
elected by unanimous vote. W^hen he took the oath of 
office (April 30, 1789), the judge who administered it 
shouted : " Long live George Washington, President of the 
United States ! " and the crowds of people repeated the 
cry with great earnestness. One who saw the ceremony 
wrote at that time : " He was dressed in deep brown, 
with metal buttons with an eagle on them, white stockings, 
a bag, and sword." The President was a new officer. 
How should he be addressed in letters or in personal 
conversation .'' Some favored " Your Excellency " ; others 
favored "Your High Mightiness." Out of the argument 
came the simplest of all titles : " Mr. President." 
s 257 



258 United States History for Schools 



j<*WN ^^ .0r^. 



r 



From the Painting by Gilbert Stuart. 

George Washington. 



Organizing the New Government 259 

John Adams was chosen first Vice President. It is 
interesting to note that Washington was a soldier from 
Virginia, and Adams was a statesman from Massachusetts. 
Thus in the first election both sections of the country were 
recognized, and so were statecraft and military achieve- 
ment. 

The executive department was completed when the 
President selected the secretaries to compose his Cabinet. 
Thomas Jefferson became Secretary of State ; Alexander 
Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury ; General Henry 
Knox, Secretary of War; and Edmund Randolph, Attorney- 
general. 

254. Congress and the Courts. — The President appointed 
John Jay as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. 
When Congress had organized for business it began at 
once to regulate commerce, to create the courts subor- 
dinate to the Supreme Court, and to pass other useful laws. 
It called upon Secretary Hamilton for reports on the 
Public Credit, and that genius wrote five great reports on 
the laws necessary to make the government strong and 
effective. 

255. The Number of People. — This new government 
was to serve the people. How many people were there, 
and where did they live ? The people were not carefully 
counted until 1790. In that census it was found that the 
United States had a population of about 4,000,000, and 
about one fifth of these were slaves. The people had not 
then crowded into cities, as they have done in more recent 
times. Philadelphia, the largest city, had about 31,000, 
and then followed New York, Boston, Baltimore, and 
Charleston. Most of the people still lived in settlements 
along the shores of bays and in the river valleys. The 



26o United States History for Schools 

state of Virginia had the largest population, about 532,000. 
Massachusetts and Pennsylvania came next, with about 
330,000 each. 

256. How the People Lived. — Surprisingly little change 
had been made in home life since colonial days (§§i 19-133). 




The century before 1789 was so filled with struggles 
against the wilderness and against the home country that 
little time was left for great inventions or improvements. 
And yet there were many more settlements and more and 
better houses. There were better food and clothing:. Some 



Organizing the New Government 261 

of the people who could afford it tried to live in as great 
comfort and elegance as the richer classes of Europe. 

257. Industries. — The Northern states still led in manu- 
factures. They had many sawmills and gristmills and were 
beginning to transfer other manufacturing from the work- 
ers' homes into organized factories, as at present. This 
important change was begun in 1790. Moses Brown, a 
Rhode Island Quaker, wrote to Samuel Slater of England 
about coming to America to set up a mill for spinning 
cotton yarn or thread : " If thou canst do this thing, I 
invite thee to come to Rhode Island, and have the credit 
of introducing cotton manufacture in America." 

Slater accepted the invitation, and, trusting entirely to his 
memory, built the wheels and spindles and shafts for the 
first mill which was set in operation at Pawtucket. This 
was soon to produce great changes in the whole industrial 
life of the North. The same year the first cotton mill was 
built (1790). Jacob Perkins, of Massachusetts, invented a 
nail machine that could turn out 200,000 nails a day. 
Before that all nails were made by hand. Asa Whittemore, 
also of Massachusetts, invented a machine for making wire 
cards for carding wool. It was said that this machine 
operated "as if it had a soul." Some ten years before the 
first cotton mill, Oliver Evans of Delaware invented the 
grain elevator (1780), and made such other improvements 
as "effected a revolution in the manufacture of flour." 

The West was still new, and so cattle raising and agri- 
culture were about the only industries there. In very 
early days the mining of iron ore and the making of pig 
iron constituted an important industry in Pennsylvania and 
New Jersey, but the making of tools, rails, and engines of 
the iron was a later development in this country. 



i6i 



United States History for Schools 



In the South hard toil was not relished by the white men 
at that time, as all labor was performed by slaves and by 
the poorest white people. Slave labor was not suitable for 
manufacturing, and so the industrial life of the South was 
wholly agricultural. Jkit one inventit)n was made there 
which had greater effect on American history than any 
other machine known. 

258. " King Cotton " and Slavery. — Eli Whitney was 
born in Massachusetts, and after sixty years of eventful life 
he died in Connecticut. He was, therefore, a New Eng- 

lander. After 
graduating from 
Yale in 1792, he 
went to Georgia, 
and, on finding 
the offered place 
of tutor filled, he 
accepted an invi- 
tation of General 
N a t h a n a e 1 
Greene's widow to 
make his home on 
her estate. It was 
there t li a t he 
made his wonder- 
ful invention. As 
a boy, during the 
Revolution, he had earned his living by making nails by 
hand. He paid his own way through college by that and 
similar work. He made so many small contrivances for 
Mrs. Greene that she advised his trying to improve the 
handling of cotton. At that time there was but little profit 




En WlIITNF.Y. 



Organizing the New Government 263 



in cotton, because it required a day's work of a slave to 
separate the seeds from a single pound of cotton. Whitney 
worked under difficulty, for he had to make his own wire 
and tools ; but he produced (1793) the cotton <;in, with which 
a single slave could clean a thousand pounds of cotton a 
day. Cotton soon became " King." It became the great 
crop, greater even than to- 
bacco throughout the South. 
This was just the kind of crop 
for the profitable use of slave 
labor. Though the framers 
of the Constitution disliked 
slavery so much they avoided 
the very word in writing that 
document, the Southern 
people now searched the 
Hible and the pages of history 
to justify slavery. In this 
they were joined by Northern men who were also reaping rich 
harvests in cotton manufacturing. Thus the cotton gin pro- 
duced in North and South a stronger sentiment in favor of 
slavery, which influenced the history of the whole country. 
The prosperity which came from cotton was enormous. 
Nine years before Whitney's invention a vessel from 
Charleston landed eight bales of cotton at Liverpool (1784). 
There it was seized by officers who said America could 
not produce such a " prodigious quantity." Ten years 
after the invention we exported 100,000 bales! And each 
year saw a heavier increase. Macaulay has said : " What 
Peter the Great did to make Russia dominant, Eli Whitney's 
invention of the cotton gin has more than equaled in its 
relation to the power and progress of the United States." 




First Cotion Gin. 



264 United States History for Schools 

259. The Whisky Rebellion (1794). — The whisky crop 
was not so great as the cotton crop, though there is no 
denying that it was profitable for those who raised it, and 
that it has greatly influenced — for the bad — the history 
of mankind. One way the new government had of raising 
revenue was to tax whisky. Many farmers in the West 
had found it unprofitable to haul their grain to market over 
the long and miserable roads through the mountains. 
They made the grain into whisky, and obtained greater 
profits. The new tax cut down those profits. Some of 
the angry farmers in western Pennsylvania took up arms 
to fight the officers of the law. Washington sent out 
troops, who quickly suppressed the "Whisky Rebellion." 

260. Poor Transportation Facilities. — Inventive minds 
had not yet been turned toward improving means of trans- 
portation, though the steamboat was to make its first ap- 
pearance in a few years. Between many settlements there 
were then nothing better than bridle paths or trails. There 
were no good roads for long distances, and very few bridges. 
The ferries were poor, and actually dangerous when there 
was ice in the rivers or hard winds were blowing. At such 
times there was more real danger in crossing the lower 
Hudson River than is involved in a journey around the 
world at the present time. 

The regular land communication between New York and 
Boston was by stagecoaches drawn by teams of six horses. 
By starting at four o'clock in the morning and traveling until 
ten o'clock at night the coach could make forty miles a 
day in the good summer weather, and about eighteen miles 
in winter. In the same time required to make that tire- 
some trip then, a passenger can to-day travel in comfort 
across the Atlantic, or by land from New York to San 
Francisco, or from Boston to Seattle. 



Organizing the New Government 265 



261. Beginning of Political Parties. — With so many 
people in the country, who had developed colonies into 
ambitious states, who had fought for and obtained political 
freedom and independence, who saw their industries ex- 
panding and increasing, and who had just organized a new 
and stronger national government, it was perfectly natural 
there should grow up differences of opinion that would 
produce political parties. The division came on the ques- 
tion of how much power should be saved for the individual 
states and how much should be given to the national 
government. 

Those who believed in a strong, supreme national govern- 
ment became known as Federalists, and those who believed 
in restricting the national government and keeping the 
state governments stronger were called Anti-Federalists. 
Alexander Hamilton, who had done so much to make the 
national government stronger, was the leader of the Feder- 
alists, while Thomas Jefferson was leader of the Anti-Fed- 
eralists. Jefferson feared that if supreme power were 
given to the national government, it would soon be trans- 
formed into a monarchy. He demanded that the Consti- 
tution be strictly construed, and that Congress should 
exercise only such powers as were actually conferred by 
that document. (See Constitution, Article I., Section 8.) 
The followers of these men constituted the two parties. 

Washington, through his great desire for a strong na- 
tional government, through his hard work in favor of the 
Constitution, through his unequaled influence in the coun- 
try at large, was the real leader of the Federalists. But 
he did not want to be a party leader. He was opposed to 
party divisions. For those reasons, Hamilton became the 
Federalist leader. To show his belief in the whole coun- 



266 United States History for Schools 



try rather than in any one party, Washington invited both 
Jefferson and Hamilton into his first Cabinet, and he was 
equally impartial in selecting other officers. 

262. Locating the National Capital. — An early evidence 
of party division was shown when Hamilton undertook to 
have the general government assume the war debts of the 
separate states. This would certainly increase the credit 
of the nation, but it would also make it necessary for the 
national government to raise large sums of money by some 
form of taxation. This aroused the opposition of the Anti- 
Federalists. They did not want Congress to have such 
an excuse for laying heavy taxes, and besides, they argued 
that some states had paid their own debts, and this plan 
would tax them to pay part of the other state debts. They 
defeated the plan in Congress. 

Later, however, a compromise was arranged. The capi- 
tal of the nation was to be located in the South, on the 
Potomac River ; and this concession gained enough votes 
in Congress to carry the wise measure by which the nation 
assumed the war debts of the states. 

263. The United States Bank (1791). — The state debts 
assumed by that compromise amounted to more than 
$21,000,000. The national debt to France, Spain, and 
Holland was more than $11,000,000, and the United States 
owed its own citizens more than $42,000,000. The total 
debt was more than $75,000,000. This was a staggering 
burden for the new nation to assume. The debt must be 
paid from the proceeds of the tariff and the tax on spirituous 
liquors. Some of the debt would have to be paid soon, and 
provision had to be made for the interest as it became due. 
To collect, care for, and pay out so much money was a big 
problem. 



Organizing the New Government 267 

Part of Hamilton's reports on Public Credit (§ 254) dealt 
with this very problem. He favored a strong bank to be 
partly owned and controlled by the nation. Congress fol- 
lowed his advice by passing a law to create such a bank, 
and to give it large powers in a money way for a period of 
twenty years. 

President Washington hesitated when the law was sent 
to him by Congress for his signature. It was a big and a 
new question. He asked for opinions in writing by Jef- 
ferson and Hamilton, the leaders in his Cabinet. Those 
opinions are important as showing the nature of our gov- 
ernment at the time of its organization. Jefferson opposed 
^the law, saying that Congress had exceeded its authority, as 
the Constitution did not grant the power of establishing a 
bank. Hamilton strongly favored the law, and pointed to 
the clause of Implied Powers in the Constitution. The 
President wisely favored Hamilton's argument. He signed 
the law, and the bank started on a useful career. But this 
transaction widened the division of the political parties. 

It is well to get an early and firm grip on that clause of 
Implied Powers, as from it Congress got all its powers to 
do such things as are not especially mentioned elsewhere 
in the Constitution. The clause (in Article I., Section 8) 
reads : " To make all laws which shall be necessary and 
proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, 
and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the gov- 
ernment of the United States, or in any department or 
officer thereof." 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. What title was chosen with which to address the chief executive ? 

2. Who is associated with the President in the executive depart- 
ment 1 



268 United States History for Schools 

3. Who was the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court ? 

4. About how many people were there in the United States when 
the Constitution went into effect ? 

5. Where and how was the first cotton mill built in America ? 

6. Name some inventions of that time. 

7. What were the industries of the West and South ? 

8. What made cotton "King" ? / 

9. What was the '" Whisky Rebellion '' ? 
ID. How did the people travel in those days ? 

11. How did there come to be two political parties ? 

12. What compromise was arranged when the nation assumed the 
war debts of the states ? 

13. Where in the Constitution was found authority to organize the 
bank ? 



CHAPTER XXIII 

RELATIONS WITH THE OUTSIDE WORLD 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp 231-243 ; Harfs Source 
Book, pp. 188-194; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 537-591- 

Home Readings. — Hale's Man without a Country; Hart's Source 
Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 317-320; McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, 
Vol. IL, pp. 68-83 (Boone), 84- 103 (Robertson), 104-123 (Sevier), 
150-169 (Marietta and Cincinnati). 

264. Different Attitude toward the World. — In colonial 
days the affairs of other countries influenced America 
mostly through the mother country. It is true that when 
France persecuted the Huguenots we received many of 
them here as new and good citizens. From disturbances 
in Germany, Ireland, and Scotland we received other good 
citizens. But when Great Britain was at war we were al- 
most sure that part of the conflict would be carried on in 
America. Foreign relations of the colonies were in the 
hands of Great Britain. 

When the United States joined the family of nations, 
this was all changed. The new government must deal in- 
dependently with all other nations. Immediately upon 
the recognition of our independence we made treaties with 
other nations, and began to regulate our intercourse and 
commerce with the world. 

265. The Tariff on Foreign Trade. — The new govern- 
ment had inherited the heavy war debt from the Confed- 
eration, and had later assumed the state debts (§ 262), and, 
besides, the government had its own expenses to meet. 

269 



270 United States History for Schools 

To raise part of the necessary money a tax was levied on 
certain goods brought into the country from foreign lands. 
This tax is called a tariff. It has remained one of the 
principal sources of government revenue from that day to 
this. The amount of the tax would, of course, be added 
to the price of the goods before they were sold. This in- 
crease on the price of foreign-made goods would allow 
those who made similar goods in America to ask better 
prices for their own products. This stimulated the manu- 
facturing in America, and so that tax is often called a Pro- 
tective Tariff. 

266. The Nootka Incident. — The very year (1789) that 
Washington took the first oath of ofifice as President of the 
United States, a Spanish captain seized some English ves- 
sels at Nootka Sound, on the west coast of Vancouver 
Island. The Spaniard had gone too far in trying to hold 
what he thought was Spanish territory. His superior offi- 
cers in Mexico released the ships and crews. This did not 
satisfy Great Britain. She demanded that Spain pay heavy 
damages and relinquish claims to that territory. Both 
sides prepared for war, but when Spain saw that Great 
Britain had collected the greatest fleet of warships known 
in the history of the world up to that time, she yielded and 
signed the agreement Great Britain demanded. 

The incident is important to American history for two 
reasons : First, by retiring southward to the coasts of Cali- 
fornia, Spain began her American retreat. Second, while 
preparing for war, both those foreign nations made de- 
mands upon the United States, whose government was 
less than one year old. Great Britain demanded the right 
to march troops through her former colonies so as to strike 
Spain in Louisiana. Spain wanted aid because she had 



Relations with the Outside World 271 

helped America win her independence. This was a new 
and serious problem, but the far-seeing Washington decided 
to risk the anger of both nations by refusing to take sides 
in that European trouble. We shall see later how that act 
began an important policy for the government of the 
United States. 

267. The Columbia River (1792). — American captains 
made their first appearance on the north Pacific coast of 
America at the time when the Spaniards were seizing 
British ships (1789). The two captains (John Kendrick 
and Robert Gray) had come from Boston by way of Cape 
Horn. Captain Gray went home by way of China and the 
Cape of Good Hope. He was thus the first man to sail 
around the globe under the Stars and Stripes. He re- 
turned to continue the fur trade, and on May 11, 1792, he 
discovered the " River of the West," and gave it the name 
of his ship — Columbia. This achievement gave the Amer- 
icans their first claim to the region that later became known 
as the Oregon country. 

268. Our Relations with France (1783-1793). — The ten 
years following our treaty of peace with Great Britain saw 
great changes in France. We have seen (§ 140) how 
Louis XV. thought France would last long enough for 
him. It did, but it did not last much longer in the old 
way. He was succeeded (1774), just before the American 
Revolution began, by the honest, lock-making King Louis 
XVL (§ 187). The French people were suffering under a 
terrible burden of taxation to keep up the luxuries and the 
wars of the government. During the year (1789) when 
America was organizing its new government, the French 
king was compelled to call a meeting of the people's repre- 
sentatives in what they called the States General. The 



272 United States History for Schools 

kings had been so despotic that they had ignored those 
meetings for one hundred and seventy-five years. Soon 
after the assembly met, the people got control of the gov- 
ernment, and with the cry of " Liberty, Fraternity, and 




Relations with the Outside World 273 

Equality ! " they swept away all the unfair and burden- 
some privileges of king, nobles, and clergy. This pro- 
duced one of the most bloody civil wars, one of the most 
complete revolutions, known in history. 

When the revolutionists went so far as to behead their 
king and queen, the other nations became enemies. 
The new Republic of France found itself at war with 
a number of these enemies, including Great Britain. To 
show that they had obtained Equality by destroying titles 
and privileges, the French people addressed each other 
as Citizen. Knowing that America would remember the 
French help in their own struggle for Liberty, and believ- 
ing that Americans had enough Fraternity to desire 
that same Liberty for others, the French government 
sent Citizen Genet to America for aid. 

269. Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality (1793). — 
Instead of going directly to the seat of government and 
presenting his papers, as any other minister from a foreign 
country would do, Citizen Genet landed in the South 
and began agitating. The Americans did sympathize 
with France. They wore French cockades in their hats, 
sang French songs, joined clubs, and promised help. 
Genet started to issue letters to privateers and to raise 
soldiers for an army. 

Here was trouble for Washington similar to the Nootka 
incident, only very rrtuch worse. He counseled with his 
Cabinet, and then issued his Proclamation of Neutrality, 
declaring that the United States would take no part in 
that European war, but would remain neutral. Instantly 
there arose a great clamor. The people were indignant. 
Here was our old friend at war with our old enemy; and 
must we now refuse to help the friend whose aid was 

T 



274 United States History for Schools 

so valuable to us a short time before ? Genet appealed 
to the people to remove Washington from the presidency. 

But Washington was as brave a President as he was 
a general. He calmly faced the storm of anger, and at 
his dignified request the French government recalled 
their indiscreet and impetuous minister. In this crisis 
Washington proved himself a true American statesman. 
There could remain no further doubt that the United 
States proposed to keep free from all European quarrels. 

270. A New Treaty with Great Britain (1794). — The 
President's courage was also tested by the strained rela- 
tions between the United States and Great Britain. Ten 
years had passed since the two nations had signed the 
treaty of peace, and yet neither had found time or con- 
venience to keep the promises then made. The Ameri- 
cans had promised to pay certain debts to British subjects, 
and to try to make good the losses of certain loyalists who 
had been driven from their American homes during 
the Revolution. These promises were broken or neg- 
lected. On her part, Great Britain had promised to 
remove her troops from Detroit, Niagara, Oswego, and 
other forts on the frontier. This promise was also neg- 
lected during those ten years. 

Each side was at fault about those broken promises ; 
but Great Britain went farther. She prohibited American 
trade with the British West Indies. While she and 
France were at war, she prohibited Americans carrying 
goods to French ports. She also claimed the right to 
search American ships and to carry off any sailors who 
were supposed to be British subjects. The seizures made 
by Great Britain caused much angry feeling, as well as 
much loss to the Americans. 



Relations with the Outside World 



275 



To settle all these troubles by a new treaty, the Presi- 
dent sent Chief Justice John Jay to England. The treaty 
he made was disappointing. Great Britain agreed to vacate 
those Western forts and to open the British West Indies 
to trade, but she stubbornly insisted on her Right of 
Search. Though concluded in 1794, it was more than 
a year before 
the treaty was 
finally accepted. 

During that 
time great op- 
position to the 
treaty was man- 
ifested in Amer- 
ica. Hamilton 
tried to address 




meeting in 



New York, fa- 

voringthetreaty, 

but he was 

driven from the 

platform by a 

shower of stones 

hurled by the 

angry crowd. 

Was hin gt on 

again faced 

angry people, 

and when the opposition newspapers held him up to scorn, 

he said he " would rather be in his grave than in the 

presidency." 

271. The " Men of the Western Waters." — More and ever 



276 United States History for Schools 

more settlers had been finding homes in the Western lands. 
Through Cumberland Gap in the mountains men had made 
trails and roads from Virginia and the Carolinas into the 
valleys south of the Ohio. Men from Pennsylvania and 
New York had crossed the mountains to the rivers that flow 
into the Ohio, and men from New England had found a 
way to the Ohio country through the valley of the 
Mohawk. They called themselves " Men of the Western 
Waters." 

The lands were wide and rich, but next to the lands those 
waters were most important to the settlers. Those rivers 
led them to their new homes, and when they began to raise 
crops they floated loaded boats to the Ohio, down that river 
and the Mississippi, to the market at New Orleans. The 
boats used were the famous " Flat Boats," made of lumber 
hewn from the forests by the farmers. In these boats 
heavy loads could be floated downstream, but there was no 
way to push or pull the empty boats upstream, so they 
were sold at New Orleans for lumber or wood. When the 
boats and cargoes were sold the farmers would buy clothing, 
furniture, and other supplies. These would be shipped in 
some vessel bound for an Atlantic coast port. From such 
port the farmers would haul them over the mountains to 
their Western Waters and to their homes. Thus the rivers 
were the natural highways for the people. They earnestly 
desired the United States to keep them open and free. 
New Orleans and half the Mississippi belonged to a foreign 
nation (Spain), and we shall see some important events 
connected with that fact. 

The people along the southern bank of the Ohio organ- 
ized themselves into an independent state, which was 
admitted to the Union (1792) with the Indian name Ken- 



Relations with the Outside World 277 

tucky, meaning " At the Head of a River." Four years 
later another state just south of Kentucky was admitted to 
the Union (1796). Andrew Jackson was a member of the 
convention to frame the new state constitution. He pro- 
posed the name " Great Crooked River State." The name 
chosen means the same thing in the Indian language — 
Tennessee. The people in the Ohio country would also 
soon be ready to form new states. 

272. Washington's Farewell Address (1796). — Washing- 
ton had been twice elected President by unanimous vote. 
As the time for the third election drew near, he refused to 
listen to proposals for a third term, but instead he issued to 
the people his Farewell Address. This is one of the finest 
documents in American history. In it the great Washing- 
ton pours out his heart as a father would talk to his chil- 
dren. He praises and encourages them, and tries to sound, a 
warning against every form of danger to the country. He 
especially warns against foreign entanglements. He said : 
" Observe good faith and justice towards all nations; culti- 
vate peace and harmony with all." Every American citi- 
zen can still find inspiration by reading that address. 
Those who love our schools will find there how Washington 
also loved and believed in them, for he says : " Promote, 
then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for 
the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the 
structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is 
essential that public opinion should be enlightened." 

273. France and the Case of X, Y, Z. — The four years 
that John Adams was President (1797-1801) witnessed a 
serious disturbance of America's foreign affairs. We 
managed to get along with England fairly well under the 
Jay Treaty, but not so with France. The government of 



278 United States History for Schools 

that country had passed into the hands of five men called 
The Directory. These Directors declared that America 
had insulted France by signing that Jay Treaty with Great 
Britain, and they drove from France the American minister, 
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. 

President Adams was firm and courageous in this crisis. 
He sent John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry to join Pinck- 
ney in an effort to adjust the trouble with France. The 
Directory sent three agents to deal with the three Ameri- 
cans. After many delays the French agents hinted at 
the necessity of bribe money for the Directors. The 
Americans rejected the idea with promptness. During the 
further negotiations the French agents brought up the 
question again. 

"You do not speak to the point," said they; "it is 
money. Money for the Directors." 

" We have answered that." 

" What is your answer .'' " 

" It is No ! No ! Not a sixpence ! " 

In sending his report home, Pinckney mentioned some- 
thing about " Millions for defense, but not one cent for 
tribute." President Adams gave the report to Congress ; 
but, instead of mentioning the names of the guilty French- 
men, he used the letters X, Y, and Z, which letters have 
since been used as the name of the incident. 

President Adams became really popular for the first and 
only time in his life. England published the X, Y, Z papers 
over Europe, to the injury of France. In America the 
people were excited. They shouted : " Millions for de- 
fense, but not one cent for tribute ! " They sang the new 
song " Hail, Columbia." They also prepared for war. An 
army was raised, and Washington was drawn from his 



Relations with the Outside World 279 

retirement at the loved Mount Vernon to take command 
of it. The navy under Commodore Truxton captured two 
French frigates. The people were anxious for the war to 
continue. But President Adams heard that affairs had 
again changed in France. Napoleon Bonaparte was 
practically in power there, and American agents would be 
respectfully treated. 

Adams, without consulting others, sent agents to France, 
and the trouble was quickly adjusted. He then bravely faced 
a storm of disapproval, and calmly declared : " I desire no 
other inscription over my gravestone than this : Here lies 
John Adams, who took upon himself the responsibility of 
the peace with France in the year 1800." 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. What is tariff ? 

2. What attitude did Washington assume during the trouble called 
the "Nootka Controversy" ? 

3. Why was the discovery of the Columbia River important ? 

4. What did the French revolutionists ask of the United States ? 

5. What did Washington's proclamation of neutrality mean ? 

6. How did Jay's treaty test Washington's courage ? 

7. Who were the " Men of the Western Waters " ? 

8. What did Washington do instead of becoming a candidate for a 
third term of the presidency ? 

9. What is the X, Y, Z case ? 



CHAPTER XXIV 

POLITICAL AND INDUSTRIAL EVENTS (1798-1808) 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 243-257 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 1 94-2 1 1 ; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 592-608. 

Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 81-142 ; Mc- 
Murry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. HI., pp. 1-39 (Lewis and Clark) ; 
Sparks's Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 218-254 (Jefferson). 

274. Laws against Editors and Foreigners (1798). — The 
wave of popular feeling dtiring the trouble with France 
caused the Federalist party then in control of Congress 
and the government to go to an unfortunate extreme by 
enacting the Alien and Sedition Laws. There were a 
number of editors in America who were Frenchmen. 
They were probably excited by the stirring events in 
France. At any rate they published abuse of Adams and 
the Federalists. The new laws were aimed at those French- 
men principally. The Alien Law gave to the President 
alone power to send out of the country any foreigner 
whom he considered dangerous to the government. By 
the Sedition Law any one could be punished by fine and 
imprisonment who attempted to bring contempt upon the 
government by speaking or writing. Instead of bringing 
strength, these extreme laws brought defeat to the Feder- 
alist party. 

275. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. — Jeffer- 
son's Anti-Federalist party, or Democratic Republicans, 
were strongly opposed to the Alien and Sedition Laws. 
To express this disapproval two sets of resolutions were 

280 



Political and Industrial Events (i 798-1 808) 281 

adopted. One set, drawn by Madison, was adopted by 
Virginia, and the other set, drawn by Jefferson, was adopted 
by Kentucky. These resolutions were not laws, but they 
exercised a strong influence on American history until the 
Civil War. They declared that those obnoxious laws were 
unconstitutional. The Kentucky Resolutions went so far 
as to claim that the states had the right to declare null 
any law of Congress which was unconstitutional. If that 
were true, the states and not the nation would have 
supreme power. 

276. Death of Washington. — During the trouble over 
the Alien and Sedition Laws the FederaHsts and the 
nation lost their greatest leader. Washington died at 
Mount Vernon on December 14, 1799. His death was 
mourned, not only in America, but throughout the world. 
In Paris the flags were all at half-mast. Napoleon said: 
" Washington's name will be loved and honored when mine 
is forgotten in revolutions." The Duke of Wellington, 
when hanging up a picture of the great American in his 
English home, said: "Not only was Washington the 
greatest, but he was also the most majestic, man in history." 
He was buried at Mount Vernon, and to this day whenever 
a boat passes up or down the Potomac, a salute is given to 
the sleeping " Father of his Country." 

277. The City of Washington. — After the compromise 
to locate the national capital in the South was accepted 
(§ 262), Washington himself selected the place on the 
bank of the Potomac above Mount Vernon. The tract was 
ten miles square, and was called the District of Columbia. 
There were no houses there. Engineers and architects 
were engaged to lay out streets and plan buildings. It is 
said that the national capital is the only American city 



282 United States History for Schools 



that was begun with a blank sheet of paper. The new 
city was called Washington, and the seat of government 
was moved there in 1800. 

278. John Marshall, Chief Justice (1801). — One of the 
most important acts of John Adams as President was the 




Thomas Jefferson. 

promotion of his Secretary of State, John Marshall, to be 
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He held that exalted 
position for thirty-four years (i 801-183 5), and by his won- 
derful talent and legal learning did much to strengthen the 
national government. He was pious, modest, and amiable. 



Political and Industrial Events (1798-1808) 283 

He was tall and rather awkward, but the fruits of his mind 
have placed his name among the great ones of the world. 
It is said that he solved the greatest problems before him 
"with giant ease." 

279. Thomas Jefferson. — The state of Virginia had 
many noble sons of whom she is justly proud. Among 
the greatest of them was Thomas Jefferson. He was no 
soldier, nor was he an orator. During all his eighty years 
of life he never made a speech more than ten minutes 
long. He did most of his work with the pen. And what 
a pen he did wield ! He wrote and schemed and framed 
laws always for the good of the masses. He has been 
called a " Conspirator for the Welfare of the People." 
Few statesmen in the whole history of America have had 
the confidence of the people in greater measure than 
Jefferson. 

He resigned as Minister to France to become Washing- 
ton's first Secretary of State. He was Vice President 
under Adams, and in 1801 he became President. His elec- 
tion made a big change in the politics of the United States. 
For twelve years the Federalists had had control of the 
government ; but that party had been badly discredited 
through the Alien and Sedition Laws and other measures. 
Jefferson's Democratic-Republican party rode into power 
on the promises of a strict construction of the Constitution 
and of greater economy in government. And that party 
retained power for many years. 

280. Napoleon Bonaparte. ^It is too often thought that 
Napoleon's wonderful career was confined wholly to the old 
world. He came into American history in a number of 
important ways. We have seen how he made peace with 
the United States (§ 273). Soon after that he made peace 



284 United States History for Schools 

with Great Britain, and began to plan great things for 
France. To recover part of his country's losses of Ameri- 
can territory, he forced Spain to give back Louisiana. He 
proposed to send out an army and settlers to create another 
" New France." 

To secure a base of operations, he sent an army to sub- 
due the island of San Domingo. That army met two 
surprising foes. One — Toussaint L'Ouverture — was 
such a skillful native general that he was called the " Black 
Napoleon." The other foe was the yellow fever. The 
French army failed on this first part of its journey, and 
never got to New Orleans. This was a disappointment to 
Napoleon, for he knew that, if war should break out with 
Great Britain, he could not defend Louisiana. 

281. The Purchase of Louisiana (1803). — The people of 
the West were deeply interested in the ownership of 
Louisiana. Before it was known that France had secured 
the province, the Spaniards there had refused to allow the 
Americans to continue their use of the harbor of New 
Orleans. The angry Americans proposed to raise an army 
to march on New Orleans and capture it. Jefferson was 
always interested in the West. He sympathized with those 
people in their new trouble, and ordered Minister Livingston 
in Paris to try to purchase New Orleans. Growing anxious 
over the delay, he sent James Monroe as a special envoy 
to assist Livingston, and declared : " The day the French 
occupy New Orleans, that day we must marry ourselves 
to the British fleet and nation." 

The American offer to buy New Orleans came just at 
the right time for Napoleon. The war with Great Britain 
was about to be renewed. He would rather see New 
Orleans in the hands of America than to see it captured 



Political and Industrial Events (1798-1808) 285 

by the ancient enemy of France. Besides, he needed 
money. So he surprised the Americans by offering to sell 
them not only New Orleans, but the whole province of 
Louisiana, for ^15,000,000. 

Jefferson knew that there was no provision in the Con- 
stitution for such a transaction. He called a meeting of 
the Cabinet, and proposed to try to have the Constitution 
amended. The Cabinet convinced him he could not get 
such an amendment approved at once, and he would have 
to act under the treaty-making power of the President. 
This he did, the purchase was made, and the area of the 
United States was more than doubled. By this very 
fortunate act, Jefferson himself demonstrated that if the 
United States was to become a great nation its power 
must be enlarged in spite of the theories of " strict con- 
struction." 

282. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803-1806). — Jef- 
ferson's deep interest in the West was manifested as early 
as 1783, when he wrote a letter to George Rogers Clark 
asking if that hero of the West would not like to lead an 
exploration from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. 
Next, while United States Minister in France, Jefferson 
tried to help John Ledyard, a remarkable Yankee of roving 
disposition, who wanted to explore the far West in America. 
The plan failed, but when Jefferson came home he per- 
suaded the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia to send 
out a small expedition. That failed also, but Jefferson 
kept watch of the young Captain Meriwether Lewis, who 
had volunteered for the work. Jefferson, when he became 
President, made Lewis his private secretary. When he 
was satisfied that Lewis was the right man, he planned the 
exploring party with that young captain as its leader. For 



286 United States History for Schools 



greater safety in case of sickness or accident, Lewis ob- 
tained permission to share the leadership with his friend 
Captain William Clark, a younger brother of George 
Rogers Clairk. 

The party consisted of the two leaders, nine young men 
from Kentucky, fourteen soldiers, two French watermen, 

an interpreter, and a black 
slave belonging to Captain 
Clark. In the early spring 
of 1804 they started up the 
Missouri River, and late in 
September, 1806, they re- 
turned to St. Louis. They 
had followed the Missouri to 
its source, crossed the Rocky 
Mountains to rivers flowing 
into the Columbia, and then 
down that river to its mouth, 
where they spent the winter 
in a camp built of logs which 
they named after the Indian 
tribe there — Fort Clatsop. 
They discovered and named 
rivers and mountains. Their 
explorations did much to 
strengthen American claims 
in the region of the river 
discovered by Captain Gray (§ 267), as well as to make 
known much of the land purchased from France. 

283. The Barbary States as Pirates. — American com- 
merce had expanded to all parts of the world. There was 
one place where the Stars and Stripes were not respected. 




FromStatiK li\ II 



Indians greet Lewis and Clark 
IN Oregon. 



Political and Industrial Events (1798-1808) 287 



This was in the Mediterranean Sea, along the northern 
coast of Africa. There were a number of little govern- 
ments there, such as Morocco, Algeria, Tripoli, and Tunis, 
often called the Barbary States. They were Moham- 
medan, and felt free to attack any defenseless ship 
of a Christian nation. They stole the cargoes and made 




Overland Trails. 

slaves of the sailors. In all this they were no better than 
common pirates. European nations bought off the pirates 
by paying large sums of tribute money. 

It is sad to relate that while we were shouting " Millions 
for defense, but not one cent for tribute," we were follow- 
ing the European custom of paying tribute to those pirates. 
Part of the money was raised by churches when stories 
were told of American sailors held as slaves. The pirates 
were never satisfied. The Pasha of Tripoli declared war 



288 United States History for Schools 

against the United States (1800) because we would not 
send more money. This was too much for Yankee pride. 
Even though President Jefferson was opposed to a navy 
and to war, he sent a squadron that defeated Tripoli (1805) 
and frightened the other Barbary States so that they re- 
spected the American flag. 

284. Aaron Burr's Conspiracy. — Aaron Burr is an ex- 
ample of a man of fine family and unusual talent being 
ruined by a lack of proper moral ideals. His father was 
a noted clergyman, and president of Princeton College. 
His mother was the daughter of another famous clergy- 
man, Jonathan Edwards. Young Burr wanted to be a 
"man of the world," ^nd through that ambition came his 
ruin. He was a brave ofificer in the Revolution, and later 
became a lawyer. In the election of 1800 he was chosen 
Vice President under Thomas Jefferson. Just as his term 
was ending, he tried to be elected governor of New York. 
He was bitterly opposed by Hamilton, and challenged him 
to fight a duel. Burr killed Hamilton, and was denounced 
by the people as a murderer. He fled from New York, 
and began a wild scheme to conquer Texas and Mexico to 
make an empire for himself. The capital was to be at 
New Orleans. When he planned to add to his "empire " 
a western portion of the United States he was guilty of 
treason or conspiracy. He was arrested, but was acquitted 
after a famous trial. Though at one time rich and influen- 
tial, he was shunned in his last days, and died in poverty. 
There was one bright gleam in his black hours. His 
daughter Theodosia, whom he almost worshiped, clung to 
him through his deepest troubles. 

285. Robert Fulton's Steamboat. — Robert Fulton was 
an inventor by nature. When only thirteen years old he 



Political and Industrial Events (1798-1808) 289 



invented paddle wheels for a fishing boat. He also had a 
talent for painting, and was sent to Europe to study. There 
he gained some reputation for his art, but much more for 
his inventions. These 
included improvements 
for bridges and canals, 
manufacturing machin- 
ery, and even the begin- 
nings of a submarine 
boat and torpedoes. 
While Fulton was busy 
in England and France, 
John Fitch of Connecti- 
cut invented a rude little 
steamboat. He was so 
discouraged at not get- 
ting money to perfect his 
invention that he com- 
mitted suicide. Before 
he died he wrote these 
words : " The day will 
come when some more 
powerful man will get fame and riches from my invention." 
Robert Fulton was that " more powerful man." He 
bought an engine in England, brought it to America, built 
the Clermojit, and paddled it by steam power up the Hudson 
from New York to Albany (one hundred and fifty miles) in 
thirty-two hours. That was a great day ( March 1 1 , 1 807) for 
New York and the world at large. Thousands of people gath- 
ered to see the boat they thought was " helpless as a log." 
They called the boat "Fulton's Folly." But when the pad- 
dles in plain view on the sides of the boat began to turn, 
u 




R(_)i;ekt Fulton. 



290 United States History for Schools 

and the boat started upstream against the current, there 
arose a glad shout of approval: "She moves ! She moves ! " 



t-^_AAl 




V""!-^, 



Second Boat by Fitch. 



Whoever deserves the credit of having made the very 
first application of steam to transportation, we know that 
Fulton's steamboat made a practical application of the 




Third Boat by Fitch. 

power that influenced the entire world. It was far greater 
than a victory in war, for it increased the power and advanced 
the civilization of the whole human race. In a relatively 



Political and Industrial Events (1798— 1808) 291 

short space of time there were steamboats on the principal 
rivers, lakes, and even on the oceans. 

286. Law against the Slave Trade. — It has been seen 
(§ 258) that " King Cotton " changed the sentiment about 
slavery. Still there were many people who knew that it 
was wrong. President Jefferson said : " I tremble for my 
country, when I reflect that God is just." There were also 
many who believed that slavery as it existed in America 
was right and just, but the stealing of human beings in 
Africa and selling them in America was wrong. They 
hated the slave trade. The compromise in the Constitu- 
tion (§ 250) fixed on the year 1808 as the time when such 
trade could be stopped. As the year drew near. Congress 
passed a law to stop the importation of slaves after the 
first day of the year mentioned in the Constitution. 

287. Ohio becomes a State. — No part of the United 
States would respond more heartily than the West to the 
ideas of greater freedom and to the quickened impulse of the 
steamboat. The West was "free soil" (§ 244), and those 
"Western Waters " would be as open to the steamboat as 
to the clumsy and slow flatboat. Ohio was the first state 
in the Old Northwest ready for admission, and she led the 
way into the Union (1803) four years before Fulton's Cler- 
mont paddled its first trip up the Hudson. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Did the Alien and Sedition Laws do what was expected of them? 

2. If the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions had prevailed, what 
would have been the relation between state and nation ? 

3. Where is Washington's tomb, and how do people still show re- 
spect for his memory ? 

4. Why is the name of John Marshall famous ? 

5. Why was Jefferson called a '* Conspirator for the Welfare of the 
People " ? 



292 United States History for Schools 

6. Why did Napoleon sell Louisiana to the United States ? 

7. Show how the Lewis and Clark expedition was important to the 
whole country. 

8. How did the United States treat the pirates of the Barbary 
States ? 

9. What do you consider was the cause of Aaron Burr's failure ? 

10. Tell some of the results of Fulton's successful steamboat. 

11. When was the importation of slaves made illegal ? 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE WAR OF 1812 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 257-275 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 212-225 i Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 608-624. 

Home Readings. — Eggleston's Big Brother ; Hart's Source Reader, 
Vol. HI., 217-256, 274-315; Holmes's Old Ironsides; Key's Star- 
spangled Banner ; Sewell's Midshipman Paulding. 

288. Napoleon Bonaparte becomes an Emperor. — When 
Napoleon Bonaparte decided to sell Louisiana to the 
United States (§ 281), he had already become First Con- 
sul for life, and in imitation of European rulers he used 
but the one name — Napoleon. The French people were 
almost unanimous in giving him the new power and title. 
He had fairly earned them, for he had beaten the enemies 
of France, had spread republican ideas to other parts of 
Europe, and had undertaken amazing works of peace. 

These works of peace constitute Napoleon's true title to 
greatness. He dug canals, built bridges, and made roads 
— wonderful roads. The roads he built through the Aljjs 
were marvels of engineering skill, and were used until re- 
placed by railroad tunnels. He remodeled and beautified 
Paris and other French cities. His greatest work was the 
Code Napoleon. For this work he engaged five of the 
best French lawyers, who gathered and harmonized all 
the old and new laws into one code. Here was saved the 
fruit of Liberty harvested with such awful bloodshed in 
the French Revolution. He also made peace with the 
church, and arranged for the government to pay the sal- 
aries of all clergymen, Catholic and Protestant. 

293 



294 United States History for Schools 



In the midst of all this good work new enemies appeared, 
and an attempt was made against the life of Napoleon. 
The people then voted again to increase his power by- 
crowning him Em- 
peror of the French, 
which was done with 
imposing ceremo- 
nies (December 2, 
1804). 

289. New Wars in 
Europe. — Great 
Britain was the one 
power that stood 
across Napoleon's 
path. He hoped to 
conquer that nation 
in one way or an- 
other. It is said 
that when he closed 
the sale of Louisi- 
ana he exclaimed: 
" I hav^e this day 
given to America a 
priceless heritage, and to England a maritime rival that will 
sooner or later sweep her from the seas." He made a strong 
effort himself to conquer Great Britain. He gathered a 
large army at Boulogne on the English Channel, and built 
an immense number of flat-bottomed boats to carry the 
troops across for an invasion of England. Then he waited 
for his chance. He said : " Masters of the Channel for six 
hours, and we are masters of the world." 

William Pitt, the younger, was at the head of the 




From an etching by J. David from the portrait by L. David. 

Napoleon Bonaparte. 



The War of 1812 



295 



British government. He stirred up the other European 
governments to oppose this French oppressor. Russia 
and Austria started armies on the march. With the 




Admiral Nelson. 



swiftness for which he was noted, Napoleon marched his 
great army to the new attack, and defeated the combined 
enemies. He then organized Germany in such a way that 



296 United States History for Schools 

the Holy Roman Empire expired, after an existence of 
some eighteen hundred years. 

While Napoleon won victories on land, he suffered 
defeat on the sea. Lord Nelson, the great British hero, 
met the combined French and Spanish fleets off Cape 
Trafalgar (1805), and almost completely destroyed them; 
but Nelson, greatest of English admirals, was killed at the 
moment of victory. 

290. Napoleon's Substitute for a Fleet. — The disaster at 
Trafalgar removed Napoleon's last hope of successful 
attack upon Great Britain. He then resorted to a new 
scheme by issuing two " Decrees " in which he declared 
the ports of Europe were blockaded, and prohibited all 
nations from trading with Great Britain. That nation was 
" Mistress of the Sea," but Napoleon would try to starve 
her to submission by cutting off her commerce and 
supplies. 

Great Britain met the new attack by retaliation in the 
form of " Orders in Council," forbidding all nations to 
trade with France or with countries controlled by 
France. 

291. American Commerce Crippled. — While the Euro- 
pean nations were fighting, they needed food and other 
supplies. American commerce was reaping the harvest. 
The United States was a neutral power, and as such felt 
free to carry goods at " war-time " prices to either France 
or Great Britain. This profitable business was stopped by 
those blockading orders, when both French and British 
warships began to seize American ships. 

Great Britain was not satisfied with her control of the 
sea. She became very arrogant in the exercise of that 
control. She set up the claim : " Once an Englishman, 



The War of 1812 297 

always an Englishman." The Americans denied this, and 
claimed that a British subject might become a citizen of the 
United States by naturalization. American sailors got 
better pay and better treatment than British sailors. It 
often happened that a British captain would lose his crew 
in American ports. Some of those deserters got fraudu- 
lent papers of naturalization. That was dishonest, and to 
that extent the Americans were themselves to blame for 
part of their trouble. 

Great Britain's arrogance consisted in her searching 
American vessels and helping herself to any seamen she 
wished if the men could not prove they had been born in 
America. This was the cause of the War of 18 12, but 
before that war began, Great Britain had searched nine 
hundred American vessels and had carried off four 
thousand seamen. The worst case of all was when the 
British warship Leopard stopped the American warship 
CJicsapeake and took off four men, one of whom was 
hanged as a deserter (1807). President Jefferson ordered 
all British warships out of American ports, and Great 
Britain sent a rather tardy apology. 

292. The Embargo and the Non-Intercourse Act. — Peace 
was very dear to the heart of Jefferson. It was with re- 
luctance that he had sent a fleet against the Barbary States 
(§ 283) and consented to the building of new warships 
at that time. To meet these new commercial troubles he 
favored the act of Congress (1807) called the Embargo. 
This was a law to prevent American ships from leaving 
their home ports. It was an effort to starve Great Britain 
and France by keeping at home all American supplies 
while those countries were at war with each other. The 
law threw thousands of sailors out of employment, and 



298 United States History for Schools 

ruined all business that depended upon shipping. The 
sailors and shipowners would much rather risk capture on 
the seas than suffer want and idleness in port. Farmers 
also suffered when the foreign markets for their crops were 
closed. Jefferson and his followers were firm in their 
policy, and New York and New England grew desperate. 
There was talk even of rebellion. 

The leaders in Congress finally persuaded Jefferson that 
his loved Embargo policy must be abandoned, but it was 
agreed that the repeal should not take place until March 
4, 1809, the day that Jefferson should go out of office. The 
place of the Embargo was to be taken by the new Non- 
Intercourse Act. This provided that America should not 
have intercourse or commerce with Great Britain or France, 
though trade might be resumed with all other nations. 
This law might have brought relief to American commerce 
if Great Britain and France had been willing to respect the 
neutral American flag. 

293. Serious Problems for the New President. — The 
day that the Embargo was repealed, Thomas Jefferson was 
succeeded as President by James Madison. Jefferson had 
followed Washington's noble example by declining a third 
term in that exalted office, but Jefferson's successor was a 
personal friend and close political follower. In fact Madi- 
son had been his principal Cabinet adviser as Secretary of 
State. He thus brought to the presidency the same ideas 
on foreign affairs. Though the Non-Intercourse Law for- 
bade our trade with France and Great Britain, the new 
President hoped to settle the troubles and reopen trade 
with one or both of those warring nations. In this there 
seemed early promise of success when the British Minister 
at Washington told the President that Great Britain would 



The War of 1812 



299 



no longer molest American ships if we would agree to send 
our produce to Great Britain and her friends and refuse 
trade with France. This was good news. A thousand 
American ships, loaded and waiting, as soon as the Presi- 
dent spoke the word, " spread their white wings, like a 
flock of long-imprisoned 
birds, and flew out to sea." 
The disappointment was 
keen. Great Britain said 
her minister had no right 
to give such a promise, 
and trade was again 
stopped. 

A swindler by the name 
of Henry told President 
Madison that he had been 
employed by the British in 
Canada to persuade New 
England to secede from 
the Union and join Can- 
ada. He showed a package 
of letters as proof of what 
he claimed. Madison 
bought the letters for the United States for $50,000, but 
they proved to be fraudulent. 

The problems with the French side were made difficult 
by a trick which Napoleon played. He had been seizing 
American ships because he said they were aiding Great 
Britain. He agreed to stop all that and respect the Ameri- 
can flag if trade with Great Britain ceased. The Americans 
accepted this new chance, but when a number of ships had 
reached French ports. Napoleon broke his word and gave 
orders to seize them all. 




James Madison. 



300 United States History for Schools 

294. First American Fort on the Pacific Coast. — While 
our commercial troubles were drawing us to the verge of 
war, an important event occurred in a remote part of 
America. John Jacob Astor of New York had made a for- 
tune in the fur trade. He made up his mind that a fort 
or trading post at the mouth of the Columbia River would 
command a vast and new region for the fur trade. He 
organized the Pacific Fur Company, and sent out two ex- 
peditions, one by sea and the other by land. A log cabin 
fort was built at the mouth of the Columbia River (1811), 
and over it floated the American flag. In honor of Mr. 
Astor the fort was called Astoria. This added one more 
element to our right of possession in that region. Gray in 
the Columbia (§ 267) had given the element of discovery ; 
Lewis and Clark (§ 282) had given the element of explora- 
tion ; and Astor gave the element of occupation. 

295. Indian Conspiracy under Chief Tecumseh. — The 
Indians in the Ohio country were stirred up by Chief 
Tecumseh in an effort to drive the white men out of their 
hunting grounds. William Henry Harrison was leader of 
the army that met and defeated the Indians in the battle 
of Tippecanoe (181 1 ). Chief Tecumseh later helped the 
British; and many believed he had been urged On by 
British agents in this conspiracy, which increased American 
ill-will toward Great Britain. 

296. Greatest Cause of the War of 1812. — While the 
United States might stagger along with her crippled com- 
merce until France and Great Britain should wear each 
other out or sign a treaty of peace, the continued arrogance 
of Great Britain (§ 291) in searching American ships and 
kidnapping American sailors became unbearable. The 
feeling in America grew more and more bitter toward Great 



The War of 1812 301 

Britain. Two young leaders from the South — Henry 
Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Caro- 
lina — urged a war, believing the United States could easily 
win by capturing Canada. In the summer of 18 12 Con- 
gress declared war against Great Britain. This was ac- 
complished by members from the South and West. The 
North, especially New York and New England, opposed 
the war. 

297. The United States unprepared for War. — Great 
Britain had a thousand warships in her navy, more than all 
the rest of the nations combined. The little navy of the 
United States consisted of about a dozen vessels. Our 
army was small and undisciplined. Worse than all else, 
we were not united in the purpose of the war. New Eng- 
land had the greatest wealth, and through her disapproval 
of the war the government would find it difficult to raise 
money for war expenses. Moreover, the conflict might have 
been avoided, for at the last moment Great Britain with- 
drew her obnoxious " Orders in Council," and offered peace. 
But she insisted on her right to search our ships, and 
America rushed on into the war with the one cry of " Sail- 
ors' Rights." 

298. The World amazed at American Victories. — Great 
Britain ruled the seas. She was accustomed to win victories 
there. The world was also accustomed to look for such 
results. No one dreamed of an American victory. Great 
was the surprise, therefore, over the first naval duel of the 
war. The Constitution, now affectionately known as " Old 
Ironsides," commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, met the 
British warship Giierricrc of equal strength, and in half an 
hour conquered her. Hull took his prisoners to Boston, 
where he and his men were feasted in Faneuil Hall. Con- 



302 United States History for Schools 

grass voted the captain a gold medal, and gave the crew 
fifty thousand dollars prize money. 

The battle was a great blow to British pride, and elated 
the Americans. Out of fifteen such duels the Americans, 
by superior skill of seamanship and gunnery, won twelve. 
Great Britain sent a large portion of her enormous navy to 
blockade American ports, and soon locked in harbors the 
few American warships. The work on the sea was then 
taken up by American privateers, who preyed on British 
commerce. About twenty-five hundred British merchant- 
men were captured during the war by these privateers. 

299. Hull's Surrender of Detroit. — As the conquest 
and annexation of Canada were parts of the war plan, 
General William Hull, an uncle of the gallant captain of 
" Old Ironsides," was ordered to march his troops from Ohio 
to be ready to strike Canada a blow from Detroit. He had 
to cut roads for about two hundred miles through the forest. 
Before the news reached General Hull the Canadians knew 
all about the declaration of war. They had obtained 
reenforcements, Indian and white, and had cut off Hull's 
source of supplies. General Brock on the British side then 
demanded Hull's surrender. Without firing a shot, Hull 
hung up a white tablecloth, and surrendered his army and 
the fort (August 16, 18 12). For this Hull was convicted 
of cowardice by a court martial, and was sentenced to be 
shot. President Madison pardoned him on account of his 
brave record in the Revolution. Years afterwards the real 
reason of his surrender was learned. The woods were 
filled with Indians. If he had not surrendered, the women 
and children of Detroit would have fallen victims to the 
savage tomahawk and scalping knife. Historians now 
believe Hull was justified in his surrender. 



The War of 1812 



303 



300. Checking the British Advance. — After securing 
Detroit, the British captured Fort Dearborn, which stood 
where is now the city of Chicago. This looked as though 
Canada would annex the Ohio country, instead of being 
itself annexed to the United States. General Harrison 
was sent into the field to drive the British out of Detroit. 
His advance guard was defeated at River Raisin, and there 
was again tasted the bitterness of savage warfare. The 
Indians tortured and massacred the wounded prisoners. 
General Harrison's success, after this partial defeat, de- 
pended on the control of Lake Erie. 

301. Perry's Remarkable Victory. — The British knew of 
the value of controlling Lake Erie, and were preparing a 
fleet for that purpose. To meet that 
fleet Captain Oliver H. Perry, then 
twenty-eight years old, took crews of 
men to the shore of the lake, and cut 
down trees in the forest, with which he 
built five ships. To these he added 
four others, and his fleet was ready for 
business. He named his flagship Lazf- 
rcncc, in honor of Captain James Law- 
rence who had died in the ship duel 
of the Shannon and CJiesapcake. That 
captain's last words were : " Don't give 
up the ship." So Perry displayed those 
words on a flag at the peak of his ship Lawrence. During 
the battle (September 15, 18 13) the Lawrence yizs, cut to 
pieces. But eight of Perry's crew were left unharmed. If 
he remained there he would be captured and the battle would 
be lost. Taking his younger brother and the survivors of 
his crew in a small boat, he started for his next best ship, 




Oliver H \/ vkn Pfrr\. 



304 United States History for Schools 

the Niagara. He stood up in the boat with the flag in his 
hands. The British tried their best to sink the boat. 
Some of the oars were sphntered with shots ; young Perry's 
cap was torn with bullets ; but the Niagara was safely 
reached. The fight was renewed with such vigor that 
the British surrendered. Perry then wrote on the back of 
an old letter his famous message to General Harrison : 
" We have met the enemy, and they are ours." 

This was the first time in history an entire British fleet 
had surrendered. The splendid victory had important re- 
sults. General Harrison at once attacked and defeated the 
land forces. Among the slain on the British side was the 
wily Indian Chief Tecumseh. The Old Northwest was 
then safe to the Americans. 

302. New British Campaign Planned. — Great Britain 
had her hands full of trouble in Europe, but she had no 
idea of stopping the war in America. She probably wished 
to recover the control of Lake Erie, and she certainly 
wished to punish America for another transaction. During 
the struggle on the New York frontier the Americans had 
captured York (now Toronto), capital of Canada West, 
and had burned the public buildings. General Dearborn, 
the American commander, promptly denounced this mean 
action of his troops, but it is likely the British did not 
hear of his words. For in the year 1 814 the British planned 
a strong attack from Canada by the old Lake Champlain 
route, attacks on American ports on the Atlantic shore, 
especially the national capital, and an attack by way 
of the Mississippi River. While maturing these plans, a 
turn was made in the European war that allowed Great 
Britain to throw more of her strength against America. 

303. Downfall of Napoleon. — Napoleon was dominating 



The War of i8ia 305 

Europe to such an extent that the other peoples feared his 
Empire threatened to become the "tomb of the Nations." 
Russia had been the friend of France, but broke that 
friendship on account of Napoleon's blockade. Napoleon 
decided to march against Russia (18 12) with a grand army 
of nearly four hundred thousand men. The Russians 
retreated, devastated their own lands; and two days after 
the French entered the great city of Moscow mysterious 
fires broke out everywhere. The city was reduced to 
heaps of ruins. Napoleon then began his awful retreat 
through Russian snows. The suffering was frightful. The 
march and retreat cost the French army two hundred and 
fifty thousand lives. 

The aUied powers thought the time had come to crush 
Europe's tyrant ; but Napoleon gathered another army, 
many of whom were mere boys, and made heroic efforts 
to win. At Leipzig so many countries were represented 
in the combined enemies of Napoleon that it was called 
the " Battle of the Nations." The battle lasted three 
days. Napoleon lost. The armies poured into France. 
Paris surrendered (March 31, 18 14), and Napoleon gave 
up his crown. He was banished to the little island of 
Elba in the Mediterranean. 

Great Britain then had plenty of ships and men to use 
against America. 

304. Battle on Lake Champlain. — Before the news of 
Napoleon's downfall reached America, another attack 
was made on Canada by way of the Niagara River region. 
The battle of Lundy's Lane was a stubborn one, and 
the Americans retreated to their own side of the river. 
After that, the idea of conquering Canada was given up, 
and the Americans soon faced a serious threat of inva- 



3o6 United States History for Schools 

sion by way of Lake Champlain. As in the case of Lake 
Erie (§301), the British fleet on Lake Champlain was 
superior to the American. The British also had a land 
force of fourteen thousand men. The Americans had 
less than two thousand men, but they were strongly in- 
trenched near Plattsburg. Thomas Macdonough in com- 
mand of the American fleet won a complete victory, on 
hearing of which the British land forces retreated into 
Canada (September 11, 1814). 

305. Capture of the American Capital City. — Admiral 
Cockburn arrived in Chesapeake Bay with his British fleet 
conveying an army in command of General Ross. The 
army was landed and marched toward Washington City. 
At Bladensburg, a few miles from Washington, they met 
with some slight resistance, after which President Madison 
and other officers fled as the British marched into the 
capital city. The President's untouched dinner was eaten 
by the invaders. Going to the House of Representatives, 
one of the leaders stepped to the Speaker's chair and 
cried : " Shall this harbor of Yankee Democracy be 
burned.? All for it say 'Aye.'" The "Ayes" had it; 
the torch was applied not only there but to the other 
public buildings as well. Since then English historians 
have denounced that act as barbarous, even though it 
was in retahation for the Americans' act at York (§ 302). 

306. "The Star-spangled Banner." — Elated with the 
success at Washington, the same invaders tried to capture 
Baltimore, but Fort McHenry by stubborn resistance 
saved the city, and the British sailed on farther south. 

During the march toward Washington the British had 
captured and carried off a friend of Francis Scott Key, 
who undertook to get the friend released. President 



The War of 1 8 1 2 307 

Madison ordered a boat to be put at Key's disposal. 
General Ross consented to release the prisoner, but he 
ordered Key to be detained on a British warship while 
the fort was being bombarded. All night he watched 
"the rocket's red glare" and in "the dawn's early light " 
(September 13, 18 14) he strained his eyes to see if the 
flag was still there. In his great joy he wrote on the 
back of a letter the words so dear to Americans, — the 
national anthem, " The Star-spangled Banner." 

307. Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814). — The Creeks 
were powerful and intelligent ludians whose homes were 
in western Georgia. They would have joined the Te- 
cumseh conspiracy if the time had seemed ripe. Having 
watched and waited, they planned to strike while America 
was at war with Great Britain. They captured Fort 
Mimms, near Mobile, and massacred four hundred men, 
women, and children. Andrew Jackson was sent with 
backwoodsmen troops to punish them. Jackson had a 
maxim : " Until all is done, nothing is done." He fol- 
lowed up small victories until he fought the one big battle 
of Horseshoe Bend, in which the Creek power was crushed. 

308. The Hartford Convention (1814). — The national 
government conducting the war was .in control of the 
Democratic-Republican party. The state governments of 
New England were in the control of the Federalist party. 
There were sharp differences of opinion about the war. 
New England opposed it from the first. The opposition 
grew until a report was made to the Massachusetts legis- 
lature (February, 18 14) which contained words similar 
to the Virginia Resolutions of 1798 (§275), as follows: 
"Whenever the national compact is violated, and the 
citizens of the State oppressed by cruel and unauthorized 



308 United States History for Schools 

laws, this legislature is bound to interpose its power and 
wrest from the oppressor his victim." 

When the British captured the national capital, it 
seemed as though the time had come to stop the war 
and to make New England's protest heard. A convention 
was called at Hartford. After considering the matter 
for three weeks, the delegates published a report saying 
that the Constitution had been violated by the war, sub- 
mitting amendments to the Constitution to protect a 
minority of states against a majority, and demanding 
that the New England states be allowed to keep the 
national customs duties collected in their own ports. A 
committee of three was sent to Washington City to de- 
liver the report and demands. The danger in this strained 
situation suddenly vanished when news was received that 
a treaty of peace had been signed. 

309. The Battle of New Orleans (January 8, 181 5). — 
After the battle of Horseshoe Bend (§ 307), General Jack- 
son had increased his reputation by the capture of Pensa- 
cola, and he was next ordered to defend New Orleans against 
a heavy attack which was expected there. Jackson re- 
cruited his army up to six thousand men by gathering in 
countrymen with their muskets, negroes, and even convicts 
from the prisons. With this motley crew he built a rude 
fort of logs, cotton bales, and banks of earth. 

Great Britain sent Sir Edward Pakenham with an army 
twice as large as Jackson's and composed of seasoned 
veterans from the wars against Napoleon. Pakenham and 
twenty-six hundred of his men were killed. The American 
loss was only eight killed and thirteen wounded. Jackson 
was a national hero. 

All that slaughter of brave British soldiers could have 



The War of 1812 



309 



been saved if the telegraphic cable had been invented in 
time, for the treaty of peace had been signed two weeks 
before. The news of the treaty was brought to America 
by a saihng vessel several weeks after the battle of New 
Orleans. 

310. The Treaty of Ghent (Christmas Eve, 1814). — As 
was the case at the end of the Revolution (Chapter XVIII.), 
there was a victory of peace to be won after this war of 
1812. As the war broke out. Napoleon was preparing to 
invade Russia (§ 303), and 
the Emperor of Russia did 
not like to see Great Britain 
waste her strength on a 
minor war at such a critical 
time. He therefore offered 
to arbitrate the trouble or 
patch up a peace. President 
Madison was perfectly will- 
ing, and sent Albert Gallatin 
and James A. Bayard as 
special envoys to assist John 
Ouincy Adams, the Ameri- 
can Minister to Russia. Madison had been too hasty. 
When our commissioners arrived in St. Petersburg, they 
were surprised to find that Great Britain had refused the 
peaceful offer of Russia. 

Some months later Great Britain announced that she 
would send agents to talk of peace at some neutral city of 
Belgium. Ghent was chosen. The United States added 
Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell to the other three com- 
missioners. Before the commissioners of both sides came 
together the European wars were ended by the downfall 




Albert Gallatin. 



3IO United States History for Schools 



of Napoleon. Great Britain then had plenty of ships 
and men ready for the American war. She was not particu- 
larly anxious for peace. The negotiations were continued 

for nearly five 



"•■■"ppn^-^'w 




months before a 
conclusion was 
reached, and the 
treaty was signed 
on Christmas Eve 
(1814). 

311. Terms of 
the Peace. — We 
had been fight- 
ing for " Sailors' 
Rights," but not a 
word was said of 
that question in 
the treaty. Yet 
the practice of 
kidnaping our 
sailors stopped, 
because Great 
Britain did not 
need them in 
times of peace. 
After the terms 
of peace were 
agreed to, arrangements were made to fix the boundaries 
between the United States and Canada. Both nations 
agreed to use their best endeavors to stop the slave trade. 
One other important provision was that each side would 
give back to the other any conquests made during the war. 



Ojfice of the PhilaJelpfiia OcntUt, Feb. Mthr". 

Laus Deal 

Glorious News ! ! ! 

PEACE. 

An eipress pa«ei1 IhittUy this morning for the 
Soutl.w.rH. Ha ^. .ugb > « iLii er gated rruTnight, 
at New- York, which Wfr^Iivbred to Mr. Havens, 
who, politely shewed us iu conteuls, which are as 
follow ; 

" A BifiHsh Sloop of War,' with >fr. Carrol, and 
a Treaty of PEACE has just arrived— signed on 
the24lh December. 

When the Express letk New-York, at eleven 
cTlock, la«i night, the city was brillianUy UJu. 
minated. 

Kr No Mail from Vew-Orleani. 



i 



Peace of 1814. 



The War#of 1812 311 

This was made to include Astoria, at the mouth of the 
Columbia River, which had been transferred to the British 
and by the treaty was to be restored to the Americans. 
When the peace was concluded, John Quincy Adams be- 
came United States Minister to Great Britain, just as his 
father had become Minister at the conclusion of the Revo- 
lution (§ 231). 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Describe some of Napoleon's works of peace. 

2. Where was Napoleon weak an'd Britain strong? 

3. How was America's commerce injured? 

4. In what way did America seek to overcome the " decrees " and 
" orders " of France and Britain ? 

5. How was the first American fort planted on the Pacific coast? 

6. Why was America willing to fight for " Sailors' Rights "? 

7. What is a privateer ? 

8. Why did Hull surrender Detroit ? 

9. Describe the battle of Lake Erie. 

10. How did Napoleon's downfall affect the war in America ? 

1 1. Describe Macdonough's victory on Lake Champlain. 

12. On what ground did the British excuse themselves for burning 
the American capital buildings ? 

13. Tell how and by whom "The Star-spangled Banner" was 
written. 

14. What was Jackson's maxim in war? 

15. Why did the New Englanders hate the war? 

16. What was the Hartford Convention? 

17. What were the results of the battle of New Orleans? 

18. How was the treaty of Ghent negotiated, and what were its terms ? 



CHAPTER XXVI 

DEVELOPMENTS FOLLOWING THE WAR 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 275-284 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 226-231. 

Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. III., 321-340; Sparks's 
Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 255-281 (Clay). 

312. Feeling of National Pride. — During the ten years 
following the wiir (18 15- 1825) a number of important 
events occurred. Some of them changed the spirit of the 
American government, some of them tested the strength 
of the Constitution, all of them influenced the l;yes of the 
people and were thus part of the country's history. 

One of these important results was the immense increase 
in the Americans' feeling of national pride. No nation 
can succeed unless the people are proud of its history and 
its aims. The war had revealed to the people their 
strength, their skill, and their courage. What they had 
done they could do again if occasion should arise. New 
England was strong on the sea. New York and the South 
were strong on land ; what one section lacked the other 
could supply, and the nation as a whole was worthy the 
people's pride. 

Great Britain had found that her former children had 
grown much 'Stronger than she suspected. She learned 
that from that time on she would have to respect the new 
nation. The other nations of the world were surprised at 
America's showing in the unequal contest, and they were 
quite willing to be counted friends of the United States. 

312 



Developments Following the War 313 

This new respectful attitude of foreign nations made the 
Americans' pride in their own nation all the greater. 

313. The Growth of Factories. — Strange as it may seem, 
the years of war and battles witnessed a large increase in 
the number of wheels and spindles in peaceful industry. 
This is not so difficult to understand as at first appears. 
Just before the war a number of important inventions had 
been made in America (§§ 257-258), and others had been 
imported from England, During the times of the Em- 
bargo, the Non-Intercourse Act (§ 292), and the war ship- 
ping did not cease entirely, but it was made very dangerous. 
It was also found that it was difficult to get from foreign 
factories the guns, ammunition, and supplies needed in the 
war. Under these conditions the shipowners thought it 
would be wiser to invest their money in factories instead 
of building more ships. In this way the splendid water- 
powers in New England were " harnessed," and many 
factories of cotton and woollen goods were put into suc- 
cessful operation. In Pennsylvania, New York, and New 
Jersey the manufacture of iron goods increased. At the 
end of the war the United States was no longer a nation 
" of farmers, fishermen, and fur-traders." Those occupa- 
tions still flourished, but the United States had also become 
a manufacturing nation. 

314. Industrial Revolution in England. — Great Britain 
had had one serious war after another, and while those dis- 
turbances were going on abroad, the Enghsh people at 
home had experienced troubles of a different kind. In- 
ventions were responsible for the greatest of these troubles. 
Stockings had been knit by hand before the knitting frame 
was invented. After the machine was in use, hundreds of 
knitters were thrown out of work. Many laborers had 



314 United States History for Schools 

found work threshing grain by hand the whole winter 
through until the threshing machine took away their em- 
ployment by doing the work in a few days. All these idle 
workmen were angry, and when peace came in 181 5 Eng- 
land was in the midst of industrial war, for the workmen 
were breaking the new machines whenever they could be 
reached. Years elapsed before the idle knitters and 
threshers and others found new ways to earn their living 
and to adjust themselves to the new ways of manufacturing. 

315. America's New Protective Tariff (1816). — In spite 
of the machine breakers England had accumulated vast 
quantities of goods during the war. As soon as the war 
was ended, a flood of those goods poured into American 
markets. The imports into the United States jumped 
from ;^ 1 2,000,000 in 18 14, the last year of the war, to 
i^ 1 06,000,000 in 18 1 5. The war had kept foreign goods 
out of the market, and the American factories had started 
and prospered. As soon as the war ended, the markets were 
filled with foreign goods and the American factories faced 
a gloomy prospect. Then Congress, after a long, earnest 
debate, adopted the Protective Tariff Law (18 16) to en- 
courage home manufacturing. 

316. Recharter of the United States Bank (1816). — An- 
other business result of the war was the recharter of the 
United States Bank. With difficulty Hamilton had secured 
the first charter (§ 263) for twenty years (1791). When 
that charter expired (1811) the Democratic-Republicans 
were in power, and they opposed it. All through the war 
the state banks issued paper money, which declined in 
value, and money matters were in a bad way. President 
Madison changed his mind on this matter after the war. 
He recommended, and Congress granted, a recharter of the 



Developments Following the War 315 

Bank for another twenty years. This was one of the 
evidences that the old "strict construction" ideas of Jeffer- 
son's party were giving way before the need of national 
strength. 

317. Roads, Canals, and Rivers. — The " strict construc- 
tion " ideas received another twist on the subject of internal 
improvements. Everybody conceded that better roads, 
canals, and improved rivers and harbors were desirable, but 
according to " strict construction " the states, and not the 
nation, must provide them. As early as 1806 the United 
States had begun the Cumberland Road, but it was explained 




Map of the Cumberland Road. 

that that road would open up the Western lands, and the 
sale of those lands would bear the expense. The move- 
ment of troops in the war had been greatly hindered by 
poor roads. So, when the Bank was rechartered. Congress 
passed an act authorizing the expenditure of ^1,500,000 on 
roads, canals, and the improvement of rivers. But Presir 
dent Madison was not ready to go so far. He vetoed 
the bill. New York State promptly undertook to use her 
own funds in the construction of the famous Erie Canal to 
connect Albany with the Great Lakes. That great work 
was completed in eight years. 

President Madison's veto did not stop work on the Cum- 
berland or "National Road." By 1820 it had b^en built 



3i6 United States History for Schools 



from Cumberland, Maryland, to Wheeling, where it met 
the new steamboats on the Ohio River. It was planned 
to build the road on to the Mississippi River. After spend- 
ing about $7,000,000 the road had reached Illinois (1838), 

when work ceased on account 
of the belief that railroads would 
make wagon roads unnecessary. 
318. Beginnings of American 
Literature. — There had been 
poems, essays, pamphlets, and 
books published in colonial 
times, but the real beginning of 
a national literature is usually 
placed at the National Awaken- 
ing after the War of 18 12. The 
North American Review was 
established in 181 5, and from 
that date there have been in 
America increasing numbers of 
men and women who have given 
serious attention to literature. In an early number of the 
new magazine appeared the poem "Thanatopsis," by Wil- 
liam Cullen Bryant. 

Washington Irving was the first to win recognition 
abroad, through his quaint and humorous " Knickerbocker's 
History of New York." James Fenimore Cooper, with his 
"Spy" and his " Leatherstocking Tales," showed that an 
American could write novels of real worth. 

319. *' The Era of Good Feeling." — We have seen in 
the work of the Hartford Convention (§ 308) that the New 
England Federalists had changed places in politics with 
the Democratic-Republicans of the South by insisting that 




Developments Following the War 317 



a minority of states ought to have protection from the 
majority in the nation. We have also seen through the 
protective tariff (§ 315), the recharter of the Bank 
(§ 316), and the "National Road" building (§ 3i7)that the 
Democratic-Republicans were also changing places in 
politics by abandoning some of their ideas of " strict con- 
struction," adopting the ideas of the Federalists for a 
stronger national government. The differences between 
the two political parties were 
breaking down. 

All this was made particularly 
clear when James Monroe be- 
came President (18 17). He was 
well known throughout the na- 
tion. He was a student of Wil- 
liam and Mary's College of 
Virginia when the Revolution 
broke out, and, though only a 
boy, he joined the patriot army 
and gained a reputation as a 
brave soldier and a successful 
officer. He had held many of- 
fices after the war, and was Secretary of State under 
President Madison. As soon as he became President, 
he made a tour through New England. Washington, 
Knox, Hamilton, Greene, and many other heroes of the 
Revolution had died, but in every New England village 
and city there were still survivors. These were all de- 
lighted to meet an old officer who had become President. 
They brought out their tattered old flags, their faded uni- 
forms, their muskets and swords, and gave Monroe en- 
thusiastic greetings. Memories of the old glories increased 




James Monroe. 



3i8 United States History for Schools 

their joy in the nation's new life. The papers proudly 
called it the " Era of Good Feeling." 

The parties seemed to melt together. When Monroe 
came 'up for reelection, it was found that every electoral 
vote was for him. But there was one stubborn elec- 
tor. He voted for John Quincy Adams, because he was 
unwilling that any later mortal should " stand in the shoes " 
of Washington by receiving every vote. Monroe thus 
lacked one vote of being unanimously elected (1820). 
Before another five years had passed, party divisions again 
appeared, and the "Era of Good Feeling" had passed. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Why were Americans more proud of their nation? 

2. How did the war increase manufacturing? 

3. How did some Enghsh workmen beha\e toward the use of new 
machines ? 

4. What kind of a tariff law did America enact in 18 16, and why? 

5. How did "strict construction" ideas change as to the Bank ? as 
to internal improvements? 

6. Who were some of the pioneers in the field of American litera- 
ture? 

7. What is meant by the " Era of Good Feeling "? 



CHAPTER XXVII 

THE EXPANDING WEST 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 284-290 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 231-241. 

Home Readings. — Drake's Making the Great West ; Hart's Source 
Reader, Vol. III., pp. 143-171 ; Roosevelt's Winning of the West. 

320. Rapid Settlement of the West. — Many of the 
events we have studied caused settlements in the West to 
increase rapidly. The purchase of Louisiana (§ 282) re- 




Emigration to the Western Country. 

moved a foreign neighbor and opened the Mississippi to 
free navigation.. The Lewis and Clark exploration (§281) 
made known avast area beyond the Mississippi. Fulton's 

319 



320 United States History for Schools 

steamboat (§ 285), the " National Road," and the Erie 
Canal work (§ 317) made travel westward easier. It was 
at first doubted that a republic could succeed with as many 
as thirteen states (§ 228). What would become of the 
republic with all that West filled with people ? It would 
certainly be a test of the Constitution. 

321. The Purchase of Florida (1819). — We did not need 
more land when we bought Florida, but there were other 
reasons that made it very desirable to acquire that territory. 
In the first place, it would complete our control of the At- 
lantic seaboard from Maine to the Gulf of Mexico, and 
along that gulf to Louisiana. That was reason enough, 
but there was still a stronger one. Florida belonged to 
Spain. The Spaniards had not planted many settlements, 
and Florida was poorly governed. North of Florida was 
Georgia, which then extended west to the Mississippi. 
Indians from Florida crossed into Georgia and made 
trouble. Those Indians received firearms from the Span- 
iards, and were often led in their murderous raids by 
irresponsible white men. 

General Andrew Jackson was sent to stop those Indian 
troubles. He was just as vigorous as ever. He con- 
quered the Indians, and hanged two Britons who had been 
helping the Indians. He then captured Pensacola, and 
put an American garrison there. This was going so far 
it looked as though we might have trouble with Great 
Britain and Spain. But John Ouincy Adams, as Secretary 
of State, smoothed matters over and framed a treaty with 
Spain by which we secured Florida on the payment of five 
million dollars. 

322. Admission of New States. — After the Louisiana 
Purchase (1803), the President was authorized by Congress 



The Expanding West 



321 



to take possession of the enormous domain. The next 
year it was divided into Upper and Lower Louisiana. 
The next change was when Louisiana was admitted as a 
state (1812) and Upper Louisiana became Missouri ter- 
ritory. Indiana was the second state to be admitted (18 16) 
from the Ohio country. The following year a new South- 
ern state was admitted (18 17), taking the Indian name 




(James Monroe's Administration) 



Spaniab Po9», 
EogUsb Poas. 



Mississippi, said to mean " Father of Waters." Then fol- 
lowed another Northern state, Illinois (1818), and another 
Southern state, Alabama (1819), also an Indian word, mean- 
ing " A Place of Rest." It will be noticed that these new 
states, beginning with Ohio (1803) (§ 287), were in pairs 
— one in the North followed by one in the South. That 
did not happen by accident. Each state was entitled to 
two members in the United States Senate, and so the 



322 United States History for Schools 

people of the South planned to keep up their votes in the 
Senate by having a new Southern state ready as often as 
a new Northern state was admitted. This would enable 
them to protect their interests, especially slavery. 

323. Slavery up to 1820. — Right in the midst of the 
" Era of Good Feeling " ( § 319) the slavery question stalked 
forth to divide the people. Jefferson said it was " like a 
fire-bell in the night." " King Cotton " had made slavery 
more important to many people of both North and South 
(§ 258). Congress prohibited the importation of slaves 
(§ 286), but that law was often evaded, and good people in 
both sections were growing disturbed over the evil. The 
American Colonization Society was organized (1816) to 
send free negroes back to Africa. Th^t the South was 
interested in this work is seen from the fact that James 
Madison and Henry Clay were among those who served as 
presidents of the society. 

The " Magna Charta of the West " (§ 244) had prohibited 
slavery in the Old NorthvVest; but what about the lands in 
the Louisiana Purchase ? Would slavery be allowed there ? 
That question was the " fire-bell in the night." Louisiana 
was admitted as a slave state, but it would be a different 
matter when the northern portion of the Louisiana Purchase 
became ready for statehood. 

324. The Boundary Line of Slavery. — On account of the 
" Magna Charta of the West," the Ohio River became the 
natural boundary of slavery. The states north of that 
river were free, and those south of it were slave. Maryland 
was a slave state, and Pennsylvania was free. The bound- 
ary between the two was known as the Mason and Dixon 
Line (§ 102). That line extended to and along the Ohio 
River completed the boundary line of slavery from the 



The Expanding West 



3^3 



Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River. Where to fix the 
boundary of slavery beyond that river was the burning 
question of the hour. The North, by its larger number of 
people, had the majority in the House of Representatives, 
but the power was equal in the Senate, for on the admis- 
sion of Alabama (1819) there were eleven slave states and 
eleven free states. 

The South could not keep that balance of power in the 
Senate if the northern or wider end of the Louisiana Pur- 
chase were to be cut up 
into free states by hav- 







ing the boundary of sla- 
very extended westward 
from the mouth of the 
Ohio River. The North 
contended that that was 
the natural line to draw, 
and the South contended 
for equal rights in the 
new lands. 

325. The Missouri 
Compromise (1820). — 
The people of Missouri 
asked that they be ad- 
mitted as a slave state 
(18 1 8). That request brought on a long and bitter debate 
in Congress. Some of the land of the proposed state was 
south, but the most of it was north, of the accepted Ohio 
River boundary if extended beyond the Mississippi. 

At the same time Maine decided to separate from Mas- 
sachusetts' control, and she asked for admission to the 
Union. The House of Representatives passed the bill, but 



Territory AlTpctoil 
MISSOIKI COJim 

A AJdeU to .Miss.ntn 



324 United States History for Schools 

the slave power in the Senate defeated it. The South was 
willing to admit Maine as a new free state if Missouri 
were admitted at the same time as a slave state. At last 
a compromise was reached by which the slavery boundary 
west of the Mississippi was fixed on the parallel of 36° 30', 
which was the southern boundary of the proposed new 
state. All north of that hne should be free, with the ex- 
ception of Missouri, which was to come in as a slave state 
as the people had requested. The two states, Maine (1820) 
and Missouri (1821), were then admitted to the Union, and 
the balance of votes in the Senate was still maintained. 
For his work in this and other compromises, Henry Clay 
got the name of " The Great Peacemaker." At that time 
it was fondly hoped that it was to be a permanent peace 
on the slavery question. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Name some of the things that hurried the settlement of the West. 

2. What were the reasons for the purchase of Florida ? 

3. Why were new states admitted in pairs ? 

4. Why did Jefferson refer to slavery as "afire-bell in the night" ? 

5. Trace on the map the boundary line of slavery. 

6. Describe the Missouri Compromise. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

AMERICA'S NEW NEIGHBORS 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp 290-292 ; Robinson's 
Western Europe, pp. 634-641 . 

Home Readings. — Encyclopedia articles on Miranda, Bolivar, Saa 
Martin, O'Higgins, Hidalgo ; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 24-28. 

326. Napoleon's "Hundred Days." — Through the dis- 
turbances before, during, and after the War of 1812, Amer- 
ica obtained a number of new neighbors, and with them 
much new responsibihty. The causes of these important 
changes can best be understood by first getting a brief 
view of events in Europe. During the French Revolution 
King Louis XVI. had been executed (§ 268), and the 
frenzied revolutionists had also killed his only son, the 
prince. Though that unfortunate boy had never sat on 
the throne, history calls him Louis XVII. It was, there- 
fore, as Louis XVIII. that the uncle of the murdered 
prince was put on the French throne by the powers of 
Europe when they accompHshed the downfall of Napoleon 
(§ 303). It was a different throne from what it had been 
before the Revolution. The king had to recognize that 
the people had gained a constitution and great liberties. 
And yet at the outset he alarmed the people by claiming 
the throne to be his " by the grace of God," and trying to 
restore old royal powers. 

Seeing the discontent of the French people, Napoleon 
left his island exile and marched toward Paris. The king 
sent Marshal Ney to seize Napoleon. Ney promised to 

325 



326 United States History for Schools 

bring him to Paris in a cage, but when he saw his old com- 
mander he fell into his arms and marched with him back 
to Paris, The king fled, and Napoleon entered the palace 
as Emperor of the French. He wanted peace with Europe, 
but the other nations prepared their combined armies for 
war. 

With his old energy, Napoleon gathered an army of one 
hundred and thirty thousand men to strike his enemies, and 
there resulted at Waterloo (June 18, 181 5) one of the 
world's greatest battles. In vain the French columns 
were hurled against the British squares. Commanding 
those squares, the Duke of Wellington stood ankle-deep 
in the gravel, earning the title of " Iron Duke." He was 
wishing " for Blucher or for night." Napoleon's Old 
Guard, who knew how to die but not to surrender, left 
their dead on the field. Blucher arrived with fresh Prus- 
sian troops. The French lost. Napoleon fled to the coast 
and tried to escape to America. He was captured by the 
British, and sent, a prisoner of war, to the island of St. 
Helena in the South Atlantic. From his leaving Elba to 
Waterloo was just a hvuidred days. So history calls that 
period Napoleon's " Hundred Days." 

327. The " Holy Alliance." — Czar Alexander I. of Russia 
was very religious. He drew up an agreement for the 
rulers of Russia, Austria, and Prussia to sign. It was 
written in very religious terms, and they agreed to govern 
their peoples as "branches of one Christian nation." Out 
of courtesy the other European rulers signed the agree- 
ment, and they called themselves the " Holy AUiance." 
Very little was done by this alliance, but other meetings 
followed, called "congresses," in which representatives of 
the rulers undertook to rearrange the map of Europe and 



America's New Neighbors 327 

to undo much that was accomplished since the French 
RevoUition. There was nothing "holy" about those 
" congresses," but as most of the same rulers were repre- 
sented in the new agreements, the compacts were often 
wrongly referred to as of the " Holy Alliance." 

The " congresses " used the European armies, when 
necessary, to put the old kings back on their thrones and 
to suppress all movements toward popular hberty. Great 
Britain had taken a leading part in overthrowing Napoleon, 
but she withheld her sympathy from those "congresses." 

328. Latin America. — America's new neighbors were 
the republics formed from Spain's possessions in Mexico, 
Central America, and South America. Spain had not 
given her colonies satisfactory government. The people 
had no part in the government. Officers were sent from 
Spain, and those officers grew rich from plunder. The 
people desired a change, but they did not see a good 
chance to move until the crown of Spain was seized by 
Emperor Napoleon, who put his brother Joseph on the 
throne (1808). Revolts began in different parts of Latin 
America. Patriot leaders arose, such as Miranda, San 
Martin, O'Higgins, Hidalgo, and Bolivar. The latter 
from his great achievements was called "The Liberator." 
Slowly the Spanish troops were overcome, until the whole 
region acquired its independence (1823). 

329. England opposed to the European " Congress." — 
The king of Spain, who got back his throne when Napoleon's 
power was crushed, was ruling with a high hand, and col- 
lected soldiers to be sent to save his colonies in America. 
Those soldiers rebelled (1820), and then the "congress" 
ordered France to restore the Spanish king's authority. 
The large French army succeeded in doing that, even 



328 



United States History for Schools 



though Great Britain had objected. The " congress " next 
proposed to compel the revolted Spanish colonies to re- 
sume their obedience. At that point the " congress " 
hesitated, for Great Britain was " Mistress of the Sea." 

330. Russia in America. — As those " congresses," with 
the nations' armies behind them, ruled Europe in ruthless 
fashion, they departed farther and farther from the noble 

„ ideas of the first "Holy 

Alliance." Czar Alexan- 
der I. of Russia also de- 
parted from his thought 
of being guided wholly 
by the spirit of " brotherly 
love." He took advantage 
of the disturbances in 
Spain and Latin America 
( § § 328-329) to issue from 
his throne a remarkable 
decree, or ukase (1821). 
What we know as Alaska 
was then known as Rus- 
sian America. It had 
been discovered for Russia 
by Vitus Bering (1741), and was occupied by a Russian fur 
monopoly. By his remarkable ukase Alexander declared 
that he owned the Pacific coast of America from the frozen 
seas in the north to the Umpqua River in the south. That 
claim included all of the Oregon country. Although the 
European "congress " might consent to such a claim, there 
were two nations that would not consent. The Oregon 
country belonged jointly to Great Britain and the United 
States, and they objected strongly to the Czar's decree. 




Emperor Alexan 



Ri 



America's New Neighbors 



329 



331. The Monroe Doctrine (1823). — The United States 
Congress met as usual on the first Monday in December. 
According to the established custom, President Monroe 
submitted his annual messao:e setting: forth the conditions 




Gkorge canning. 
As he appeared in the House of Commons in 1826. 

of the country and referring to the questions that needed 
attention at the hands of the lawmakers. Without realiz- 
ing it at the time, President Monroe made certain state- 
ments in that message about the purpose and policy of the 
government which were at once accepted as having as 



330 United States History for Schools 

much force as if they had been laws of Congress instead 
of a simple message from the President. 

The President was telling Congress about the Czar's 
claim to American lands and also about Europe's intention 
to interfere with America's new neighbors, the Latin- 
American republics. He then set forth three principles, as 
follows : — 

First, the time has passed for European nations to plant 
further colonies on the American continents. 

Second, Europe must not interfere with American affairs. 

Third, America will not interfere with European affairs. 

Those three principles set forth in the President's mes- 
sage constitute the Monroe Doctrine. Its announcement 
had a wonderful effect. The Latin-American republics 
went wild with joy, for it meant that the United States 
would thenceforth defend their independence. In Great 
Britain the statesmen and newspapers approved the Doc- 
trine in the most glowing language. Daniel Webster said 
that in America " one universal burst of enthusiasm per- 
vaded all bosoms." 

This Doctrine gave the United States new and great re- 
sponsibilities. It would prove a severe test of the Constitu- 
tion to accept those responsibilities in addition to the prob- 
lems of the rapidly growing nation. One thing ought not 
to be overlooked. It was of immense advantage at that 
crisis to have kept Great Britain at our back. No so-called 
"congress" of Europe would dare to interfere with a com- 
bination of Great Britain and the United States. 

332. Two Treaties with Russia. — Czar Alexander soon 
realized that he had overdone the matter of American 
claims, and decided to withdraw his claims to the Oregon 
country. He first made a treaty with the United States 



America's New Neighbors 331 

(1824), fixing his southern hmits in America at 54° 40'. The 
next year (1825) he made a similar treaty with Great 
Britain. Those treaties left Great Britain and the United 
States as joint owners of the Oregon country. We shall 
hear a little later about that boundary line of " Fifty-four 
Forty." 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Where was ended Napoleon's '"Hundred Days" ? 

2. What was the '' Holy Alliance " ? 

3. What did the '"congresses" which succeeded the '"Holy Alli- 
ance " try to do ? 

4. Why did Spain's colonies in America want independence ? 

5. What was the importance of Britain's opposition to the European 
" congresses " ? 

6. What dominion did Russia claim in America? 

7. Show how the Monroe Doctrine met the claim of Russia and pro- 
tected the new American republics. 

8. What became the southern l)oundary of Russia's American claims 
after the two treaties of 1824-1825 ? 



CHAPTER XXIX 



FIVE YEARS OF RAPID CHANGE 



References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 295-298 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 242-244. 

Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 28-33; 
Morse's John Ouincy Adams ; Sumner's Andrew Jackson. 

333. Election of John Quincy Adams (1824). — Thomas 
Jefferson was the first President chosen by the House of 
Representatives, on account of no choice by the Electors. 

(See Constitution, Article 11., 
and Amendment XH.) John 
Quincy Adams was the second 
President chosen in that way, 
but the results were very dif- 
ferent. Jefferson succeeded in 
being reelected, and in being 
succeeded by his close political 
friends. Adams had a troubled 
administration of one term, and 
was succeeded by his strongest 
political opponent. The " Era 
of Good FeeHng " had passed. 
American political life turned on this administration, as a 
door turns on its hinge. 

John Quincy Adams had a fine education. He was a 
graduate of Harvard, and was once chosen as a professor 
in that institution. He had a brilliant career as statesman 
and diplomat, and had been Secretary of State during the 

332 




John Quincy Adams. 



Five Years of Rapid Change ^^3 

two terms of President Monroe. His father, former Presi- 
dent John Adams, was still alive in 1824. What a fine 
thing it would be to receive congratulations from such a 
father, on being elected President of the United States ! 
He earnestly desired to attain the goal, and yet about 
that he was like all other members of the remarkable Adams 
family — honest, blunt, and stubborn. When Edward 
Everett asked him if he would not do something to help 
his own election, he replied: "Absolutely nothing." He 
almost missed his great desire. 

When the electoral votes were counted, it was found 
that Andrew Jackson had the highest number. It was not 
a majority, however, and the election was transferred to the 
House of Representatives. There Henry Clay asked his 
supporters to vote for Adams, who was thus elected. Much 
bitterness resulted from that contest, and it was increased 
when Henry Clay was given the important office of Secre- 
tary of State. 

334. New Political Parties. — There were four candi- 
dates for the presidency in 1824, but they were all of the 
Democratic-Republican party. The Federalist party was 
dead. The Alien and Sedition Laws ( § 274) had crippled 
it, and the Hartford Convention ( § 308 ) had killed it. In 
the "Era of Good Feeling" ( § 319) there was but one 
party, the Democratic-Republican party. But just as soon 
as John Quincy Adams was elected, party divisions ap- 
peared again. The three great public questions that 
caused the divisions related to internal improvements, 
the United States Bank, and the tariff. 

Andrew Jackson became the leader of the old Demo- 
cratic-Republican party, which held that roads, canals, and 
improved rivers or harbors, and other internal improve- 



334 United States History for Schools 

ments were good, but that they ought to be made by 
private companies, or by states. That party said the Con- 
stitution did not permit Congress to use national funds for 
such work, and held that the United States Bank was un- 
constitutional. And they favored a low tariff for revenue 
only, and then took the new and shorter name of Demo- 
cratic party. That name has lasted to the present time, 

Henry Clay and President Adams were leaders of the 
other side, which took opposite views of the three big pub- 
lic questions. They favored internal improvements being 
made"by the nation instead of by the states. They favored 
the United States Bank, and they also favored a high pro- 
tective tariff. Since they stood for a stronger national 
government, they took the name of National Republican 
party. A little later this name was changed to the old 
Revolutionary name of Whig party, and later still that 
party was merged with others into the Republican party. 

335. New Men in Command. — Another change of this 
period was the passing of control out of the hands of the 
older men. As Jefferson grew old he was called " The 
Sage of Monticello." His advice was sought and followed 
by Presidents Madison and Monroe. On the Fourth of July, 
1826, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams died. They had 
worked together on the Declaration of Independence that 
was signed just fifty years before. Their death on that 
anniversary impressed the people with the solemn thought 
that the old leaders had gone. They must seek new 
leaders to solve their problems of state and national gov- 
ernments. 

336. Bunker Hill Monument. — The people were also 
reminded of the growing distance from that "olden time" 
by the laying of the cornerstone of Bunker Hill Monument 



Five Years of Rapid Change 335 

(1825). At that ceremony Daniel Webster gave one of his 
great orations. The occasion was made more interesting 
by the presence of the venerable Lafayette. 

337. The Last Visit of Lafayette. — Congress, by unani- 
mous vote, requested President Monroe (1824) to invite 
Lafayette to visit this country. He came, and spent four- 
teen months visiting each of the twenty-four states and 
the battlefields on which he had helped America win her 
independence. He loved America and Americans. His 
only son had been named in honor of George Washington. 
Congress voted Lafayette a gift of $200,000 and another of 
twenty-four thousand acres of public lands as tokens of 
the nation's gratitude for his services. He was delighted 
to render one more service by going to Venezuela to pre- 
sent one of Washington's swords to Simon Bolivar, " The 
Liberator" of South America. Lafayette was received 
with enthusiasm everywhere in America. He took part in 
the opening of the Erie flanal, and as his boat passed under 
a bridge the school children threw upon him a shower of 
flowers from the bridge. 

338. The Erie CanaL — Governor De Witt Clinton took 
the lead when Congress decided it was not the duty of the 
nation to build the Erie Canal (§ 317). He persuaded 
the state of New York to undertake the work with her 
own funds. There were many people of the state who 
were staggered by the size of the task. They knew that 
Lake Erie was about six hundred feet above the level of 
the Hudson River, the distance was three hundred and 
sixty-three miles, and there were rivers, swamps, and hills 
to be crossed. One doubter asked the Governor if he 
thought he could make water run uphill. He said he 
could do better than that. He could build locks and make 



22^ United States History for Schools 

the water Hft the boats over the hills. The whole scheme 
was ridiculed and called " Clinton's Big Ditch." But the 
Governor kept at it, and in 1825 he had the pleasure of 
participating in a big celebration over the completion of 
his great work. When water was turned in at the Lake 
Erie end, the news was sent to New York City by a queer 
sort of telegraph. Cannons had been set 'ive miles apart 
along the whole way. One after the othei was fired until 
the signal was received in New York. Governor Clinton 
made the journey in the first boats. He was greeted as 




Erie Canal at Buffalo. 



a hero, and when he reached the Atlantic at the mouth of 
the Hudson River he emptied into the ocean a keg of 
water he had brought from Lake Erie to commemorate 
the union of the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean. 

339. Results of the Canal. — All the results that came 
from the buikling and use of the Erie Canal will probably 
never be known. Some of the most important ones can 



Five Years of Rapid Change 



337 



be stated briefly. The West was brought closer to the 
East. A barrel of flour cost ten dollars in money and 
three weeks in time if hauled by team from Albany to 
Buffalo. When the canal was opened, the barrel of flour 
could be shipped in one week, and the cost was thirty cents. 
That great difference increased enormously the business of 
hauling freight and passengers. New towns grew up along 
the canal. Many more people sought homes in the West. 
The city of New York was made richer, and soon became 
the metropolis and financial center of the nation. And, 
still further to justify Governor CUnton's faith, the cost of 
the canal was paid back by a small toll or tax on the boats 
using it. Other states and cities began to plan canals and 
roads leading to the fruitful harvest fields of the West ; but 




A.N l'._\KL\ IJAV •'LlMliKU" iKAlN. 



most of their plans were abandoned when a new kind of 
transportation put in its appearance. 

340. The Railroad. — When steam was applied to ma- 
chines of different kinds and to boats, men began to plan 
"steam wagons." John Macadam, a Scotch surveyor, had 



22^ United States History for Schools 

invented a new kind of road made of broken rock, and 
"macadamized " roads became fashionable. It was thought 
that *' steam wagons " could be run over those good roads 
or on rails of wood or iron. George Stephenson began in- 
ventions along that line in England. Later the inventions 
were brought to America and improved. There was an 
interesting incident about the beginning of American rail- 
roads. The venerable Charles Carroll of Carrolton, Mary- 
land, was the last survivor of those who had signed the 
Declaration of Independence. When more than ninety 
years of age, he firmly grasped a spade to break ground 
for the proposed railroad (1828). As he threw the earth 
to one side, he said : " I consider this among the most im- 
portant acts of my life, second only to that of signing the 
Declaration of Independence, if second even to that." 
Great changes were wrought some years later when the 
railroad was made practicable. 

341. The Panama Congress (1826). — The bitterness of 
poHtical feeling during these changing years was clearly 
shown in the stormy debates over the Panama Congress. 
Bolivar wished to form a league of all the Latin-American 
republics, and from a generous impulse the invitation was 
extended also to the United States. The idea fascinated 
Secretary of State Henry Clay, who gave his energies 
toward securing an acceptance of the invitation. He won 
after a severe struggle. One Democrat revealed the politi- 
cal nature of the opposition when he said : " If they had 
only taken the other side of the question, we would have had 
them." One debate was so bitter that it led to a bloodless 
duel between Henry Clay and John Randolph of Roanoke. 
Randolph was very slender. He appeared at the duel 
dressed in loose, flowing flannels. Clay's bullet pierced 



Five Years of Rapid Change 339 

the flannels, but missed Randolph, who fired in the air, say- 
ing : " You see, Mr. Clay, I do not fire at you." He then 
extended his hand to Clay, and the duel was over. Nothing 
came of the Panama Congress. But those debates helped 
on Jackson's campaign for the presidency. 

342. The " Tariff of Abominations " (1828). — The tariff 
caused three important changes at this time. First, it 
caused the Southern states, especially South Carolina, to 
believe that, being agricultural, their section was injured 
by the tariff, while the North was benefited and was out- 
stripping them in wealth and population. Second, it 
caused Vice President Calhoun to make a complete change 
from a Nationalist to a States' Rights man. He was the 
strong leader of that side, and revived interest in the old 
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (§ 275) by his new 
declaration that South Carolina could nullify the tariff laws 
within her own borders. Third, it showed New England 
that her principal interests were in manufactures and a 
high tariff to protect them. Webster became a strong 
protectionist. 

President Adams was from New England. He desired 
reelection. It was to his interest to favor New England's 
request for a higher protective tariff. The Southern 
leaders knew this, and as they could not defeat the bill 
outright, they took the other plan of running the tariff up 
so high that the President would have to veto it. In this 
they were deceived, for the President signed the bill with 
all its faults. It was such an extreme law that it was called 
the " Tariff of Abominations." 

343. Election of Andrew Jackson (1828).— President 
Adams had been honest, industrious, and successful. He 
made more commercial treaties with foreign countries than 



340 United States History for Schools 

all the former presidents combined. And yet he worked 
under great disadvantage. His own party was just being 
organized (§ 334), and the Democratic party was strongly 
opposing him and using every possible scheme to discredit 
him and to advance Jackson. Clubs were organized and 
political work was continued through the whole four years. 
General Jackson had earned the name of " Old Hickory " 
while leading his soldiers. Everywhere he went the crowds 
cheered for " Old Hickory." At the anniversary of the 
battle of New Orleans (January 8, 1828) there were recep- 
tions for the hero all along the Mississippi River, reaching 
a climax at New Orleans. At the election Jackson was 
triumphant, and John C. Calhoun was reelected Vice 
President. 

344. Beginning of Temperance Work. — It is encourag- 
ing to notice that during all the excitement over politics, 
slavery, and changing conditions in general, earnest men 
and women were turning attention to temperance work. 
The " American Society for the Promotion of Temper- 
ance " was organized in 1826. Twenty-five years later 
Maine became the first prohibition state (1851). 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. How was John Quincy Adams elected President ? 

2. How were party divisions renewed during his administration ? 

3. What were some of the evidences that the old leaders had gone ? 

4. How was Lafayette's visit received ? 

5. How was the Erie Canal built ? 

6. What were some of the results of the canal ? 

7. What was the " steam wagon " ? 

8. How did the Panama Congress reveal the bitter political feeling 
in the United States ? 

9. What was the " Tariff of Abominations " ? 

10. Describe the enthusiasm for " Old Hickory." 

11. Describe the beginnings of temperance work in America. 



Five Years of Rapid Change 



341 



1789 



1790 
1791 
1792 

1793 

1794 

1796 

1797 
1798 

1799 
1801 

1803 

1804 
1805 

1806 

1807 

1808 
1809 
1811 



CHRONOLOGY 

April 30. Washington inaugurated President. 

Cabinet appointed and government organized. 

The Nootka incident. 

French Revokition begun. 

First Census showed about 4,000,000 population 

United States Bank. 

Kentucky admitted to the Union. 

Columbia River discovered. 

Eli Whitney invented cotton gin. 

Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality. 

Whisky Rebellion. 

Jay's Treaty with England. 

Tennessee admitted to the Union. 

Washington's Farevk^ell Address. 

March 4. John Adams inaugurated President. 

Alien and Sedition Laws. 

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. 

December 14. Death of Washington. 

John Marshall made Chief Justice. 

March 4. Jefferson inaugurated President. 

Ohio admitted to the Union. 

Purchase of Louisiana. 

Lewis and Clark expedition organized. 

Napoleon became Emperor of the French. 

Tripoli defeated. 

Lord Nelson's victory at Trafalgar. 

Scheme of Aaron Burr. 

Napoleon's Decrees. 

March 11. Fulton's steamboat a success. 

Great Britain's Orders in Council. 

Embargo passed by Congress. 

Law against importation of slaves. 

March 4. Madison inaugurated President. 

Astoria, first American post on the Pacific. 

Battle of Tippecanoe. 

Louisiana admitted to the Union. 



34^ United States History for Schools 

War declared against Great Britain. 
August i6. Hull's surrender of Detroit. 
Napoleon's invasion of Russia. 

1813 . . September 15. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 

1 81 4 . . Napoleon gave up his crown. > 

Macdonough's victory on Lake Champlain. 

Washington City captured by the British. 

September 13. ''Star-spangled Banner" written. 

Jackson's defeat of Indians. 

Hartford Convention. 

December 24. Treaty of Ghent signed. 
1S15 . . Januarys. Battle of New Orleans. 

June 18. Battle of Watei-loo. 

End of Napoleon's "Hundred Days." 

Machine breaking in England. 

"North American Review" established 

" Holy Alliance." 
18 1 6 . . New Protective Tariff. 

Recharter of the United States Bank. 

Indiana admitted to the Union. 

1517 . . March 4. Monroe inaugurated President. 

Mississippi admitted to the Union. 

1518 . . Illinois admitted to the Union. 

1819 . . Purchase of Florida from Spain. 

Alabama admitted to the Union. 

1820 . . Maine admitted to the Union. 

Missouri Compromise. 

1 82 1 . . Missouri admitted to the Union. 

Ukase of Czar Alexander. 

1823 . . Spanish-American republics independent. 

Monroe Doctrine announced. 

1824 . . Treaty with Russia fixed boundary at 54° 40'. 

1825 . . March 4. John Quincy Adams inaugurated President. 

Webster's oration at Bunker Hill. 
Erie Canal finished. 

1826 . . Panama Congress. 

Temperance society organized. 
1828 . . Breaking ground for first railroad. 
Election of Andrew Jackson. 



VI 



Straining the Constitution 



CHAPTER XXX 

THE JACKSONIAN ERA 

References. — Asliley's American History, pp. 298-31 1 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 244-260. 

Home Readings. — EgglestoiVs Hoosier Schoolmaster ; Hart's Source 
Reader, Vol. III., pp. 173-215 (Indians), 341-370; Sparks's Men Who 
Made the Nation, pp. 282-317 (Jackson). 

345. Testing and Straining the Constitution. — From 
the first inauguration of Washington to that of Jackson 
( 1 789-1 829) was a period of forty years, which period has in 
this book received the name "Testing the Constitution." 
The testing came from the growth and expansion of the 
nation, from new problems at home and abroad, from the 
Monroe Doctrine, from the rise and fall of political parties, 
and from numerous other sources. The next period of 
forty years, from the iirst inauguration of Jackson to that 
of Grant (i 829-1 869), has here been called by the name 
" Straining the Constitution." There are a number of 
interesting and important events to study in that period 
which did not strain the Constitution ; but the name is 
chosen because of seven events that did, as the Spoils 

343 



344 United States History for Schools 



System, Nullification, Destruction of the Bank, Slavery 
Dispute, Secession, Civil War, and Reconstruction. Those 
events certainly did strain the Constitution, as will be seen 
when those topics are studied. 

346. The New President. — There is nothing dull about 
the life of Andrew Jackson. He is one of the most inter- 
esting and important characters in American history. 
Born in 1767, he had only a boy's memory of the Revolu- 
tion, but that memory had great influence on his character. 
The spirited boy refused to clean a British officer's boots. 
He and his brother were carried off as prisoners. Small- 
pox broke out in the 
prison, and the 
Widow Jackson hur- 
ried to the place to 
care for her boys. 
She died there, and 
Andrew Jackson 
from that day hated 
the British ; and at 
the same time he 
imbibed a sacred 
love for his mother's 
memory and a great 
respect for all good 
women. Being very 
poor and an orphan, 
his friends appren- 
He had no chance to go 




Andrew Jackson. 



ticed him to the saddler's trade, 
to school, and he was so ignorant that he asserted that the 
earth was not a globe, but was flat. Later among his rough, 
backwoods associates he declared that he " wouldn't give a 



The Jacksonian Era 345 

cent for a man who couldn't spell a word more than oneway." 
Jackson was the first man to rise from such humble 
origin to the exalted position of President of the United 
States. 

It is not known how many fights and duels Jackson 
took part in ; they have been listed at from twelve to 
one hundred. As a soldier, and especially at the battle 
of New Orleans, he had become a national hero. His 
rough life made for him many enemies, but he also had 
many devoted friends. These became so numerous and 
so energetic that he was elected President by their help. 
The people knew that, while he was rough, he was also 
absolutely honest and fearless. 

347. Jackson's Election a " Revolution." — In the forty 
years before Jackson's time there had been six presidents. 
Each one of them, except Washington and John Adams, 
had held the office of Secretary of State. One politician 
declared : " Unless we break this Secretarial Dynasty, we 
will be bound by it forever." Jackson was a good hand at 
breaking things, so he was used to break that "dynasty." 
All of the other presidents had been statesmen ; Jackson 
was only a soldier. All the other presidents were from 
the East, — Virginia and Massachusetts, — but Jackson 
was from the West — Tennessee. What Emerson called 
"the nervous rocky West" had its first effective voice in 
Andrew Jackson. From that time on the active and 
vigorous people of the West, with their freer lands and 
freer ideas, were to have an ever increasing influence on 
the political life of the nation. 

But the greatest change or " revolution " resulted from 
Jackson's actions in regard to emptying and filling public 
offices. 



346 United States History for Schools 

348. The Spoils System. — New York State was at that 
time in control of a group of politicians called the " Albany- 
Regency." One of the leaders of that group was Martin 
Van Buren, who became Jackson's Secretary of State. 
Another leader was United States Senator Marcy, who 
boldly told the Senate that in New York State " if they 
are defeated, they expect to retire from office. If they 
are successful, they claim, as a matter of right, the 
advantages of success. They see nothing wrong in the 
rule that to the victor belong the spoils of the enemy." 
Jackson declared he was not a politician, but if he were 
one he would be a New York politician. 

From that source came the " Spoils System " in American 
politics. None of the other presidents had looked upon 
public offices as " spoils " of victory. Even during the 
four years of bitter opposition to John Quincy Adams, that 
President refused to remove his opponents from office. In 
one year after his inauguration Jackson removed seven 
hundred and thirty officers, including even the last survivor 
of the " Boston Tea Party." Many people believed that 
the republic was surely being ruined ; but the new ad- 
ministration insisted that every officer must be a Jackson 
Democrat. It took many years to repair the damages 
resulting from that evil system. Now large numbers of 
the pubhc officers are on the Civil Service list. They get 
their places by competitive examinations, and merit counts 
for more than political service. 

349. Orators battle for and against the Union. — We have 
seen how the tariff caused John C. Calhoun to make a 
complete change in pohtics (§ 342). He was reelected 
Vice President, and as presiding officer of the Senate he had 
to sit, an unwiUing umpire instead of participant, in Amer- 



The Jacksonian Era 



347 



ica's greate&t battle of orators. The " Tariff of Abomina- 
tions " was the indirect cause of the great debate. South 
Carohna was preparing to follow the advice of her leading 
statesman, Calhoun, in an attempt to nullify the tariff law 
within the Umits of that state. If that attempt proved 
successful, the Constitution would really be broken to pieces. 
Senator Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina was the elo- 
quent champion of the States' Rights side, and Senator 




Calhoun, WKr.srKK, and Ci.av, 



Daniel Webster of Massachusetts was the leader on the 
side of the Union. As the debate progressed, people came 
from miles around and crowded the galleries and halls of 
the Capitol to hear the great orators. John Fiske has said 
that Webster's "Reply to Hayne" is the greatest oration 
that has fallen from human hps since the masterpiece of 
Demosthenes, " To the Crown." 

A little later Calhoun resigned from the vice presidency, 
so he could return to the Senate and take up the debate 
against Webster. Because South Carolina was trying to 



34^ United States History for Schools 

declare a law of Congress to be null and void, this crisis is 
known as Nullification. 

350, Jackson and Nullification. — Before Calhoun re- 
signed, the States' Rights men wished to have the Presi- 
dent as well as the Vice President on their side. They 
knew he was a Southerner as well as a Westerner, but they 
did not know how he stood on the question of States' 
Rights. They invited him to a banquet, and when it came 
his turn to propose a toast, he startled the guests by propos- 
ing : "The Union, it must and shall be preserved." If 
there remained any Hngering doubts as to where the Presi- 
dent stood, he dispelled them soon afterwards. A con- 
gressman, about to return to South Carolina, asked the Presi- 
dent what greeting he wished to send to the people there. 
" Tell them," said Jackson, " I will hang to the nearest 
tree the first man I lay hands on who is guilty of treason 
to the United States." 

Webster's eloquence and Jackson's firmness led the nation 
safely past the crisis of Nullification. It remained for 
Henry Clay, the " Peacemaker," to bring in a compromise 
on the tariff law, and the danger was over. It should here 
be noted that South Carolina neglected to learn what the 
other Southern states would do when she took the lead. 
Not one of the other Southern states approved of Nullifica- 
tion, and some of them strongly opposed the stand of South 
Carolina. 

351. Another " Fire-bell in the Night." — During this 
time (January i, 183 1) there appeared in Boston the first 
number of a newspaper called "The Liberator." Its avowed 
purpose was to liberate the slaves. The editor was a deeply 
earnest young man, William Lloyd Garrison, who declared 
in the first issue of his paper : " I am in earnest — I will not 



The Jacksonian Era 349 

equivocate — I will not excuse — I will not retreat a single 
inch — and I will be heard." He kept all those promises, 
though it was hard work. At first he slept in the basement 
where he printed the paper. He stirred up hatred every- 
where. There came to him showers of threatening letters, 
and the state of Georgia offered $ 5000 for his arrest. He 
was mobbed in the streets of Boston, stripped of nearly all 
his clothing, and was dragged along the street with a rope 
around his waist. He was rescued by the police. Still he 
did not " retreat a single inch," and he was "heard." The 
movement against slavery grew and spread all over the 
North and West. 

352. New Political Methods. — Jackson's first term ended 
in 1832. It was then seen that the new political parties 
(§ 334) were thoroughly organized. For the first time 
national conventions were held. The National Republi- 
cans nominated Henry Clay and adopted the first national 
platform. In this the new party favored the protective 
tariff, internal improvements, and the United States Bank, 
and denounced the spoils system. The Democrats did 
not adopt the new idea of a platform, but they nominated 
Jackson for another term, and nominated Martin Van 
Buren for Vice President. They won the election, and at 
once decided that the victory meant that the people were 
opposed to the Bank. 

353. Destruction of the Bank. — On file in Washington 
City there are papers in Jackson's handwriting which show 
that he had made much progress in his work of self-educa- 
tion. Many of the papers refer to the Bank question and 
indicate his strong objections to a renewal of the charter 
(§ 316). He voiced his objections in public addresses, he 
vetoed a bill for a new charter, and yet the people were 



2SO United States History for Schools 

not prepared for his violent action. He believed the Bank 
was unconstitutional. He sympathized with the people, 
who thought such a wealthy corporation was hard on the 
poor man. Above all, he objected to the officers of the 
Bank taking part in politics. He destroyed the Bank by 
removing from it the millions of dollars the government 
had deposited. 

354. " Pet Banks " and " Wildcat Banks." — These high- 
handed actions are always credited to the President instead 
of to other officers, and rightly so, too, for Jackson declared 
that he himself "took the responsibility." He often con- 
sulted a group of friends instead of his legal advisers in 
the Cabinet. These friends were known as Jackson's 
" Kitchen Cabinet." Jackson and his friends selected 
certain state banks to receive the large government funds. 
There was a wild scramble for such favors. It was a time 
of great speculation, and those who controlled the cash 
could get rich quickly. The banks that Jackson favored 
were called " Pet Banks." 

When the big United States Bank was destroyed, there 
was no safe control of money matters. State banks 
sprang into existence everywhere. They were called 
" Wildcat Banks," as they issued large amounts of paper 
money, and often without resources with which to make 
the money good. But, such as it was, the paper money 
was plentiful. Jackson got the credit of producing lots of 
money for the common people. 

Speculation increased, especially in Western lands. The 
government, under the law of that day, sold its lands for 
a dollar and twenty-five cents an acre. New towns, 
canals, and railroads were planned, and anybody could get 
rich by obtaining government land near those improve- 



The Jacksonian Era 



351 



ments. In the last year of his administration " Old 
Hickory " made a discovery. The government lands 
were being paid for in the paper money of those state 
banks. He issued the " Specie Circular" (1836) demand- 
ing hard money, gold or silver, for the lands. 

355. The Panic of 1837. — The whirlwind was reaped by 
Martin Van Buren. He became President in 1837, and 
declared that he hoped to conduct the government on the 
same lines as his illustrious pred- 
ecessor. Gold and silver were 
scarce. Many people had 
plunged into the speculation and 
incurred debts which they could 
not pay. They became bank- 
rupt. Merchants failed. The 
state banks failed on every side, 
including some of the " Pet 
Banks," with government funds 
on hand. The panic of 1837 was 
one of the worst in the history 
of America. There were bread 

riots in New York, and there was suffering everywhere 
throughout the country. 

356. The Independent Treasury (1840). — Van Buren had 
a stormy and unsatisfactory administration of four years. 
He wisely proposed the establishment of an independent 
treasury so that the government could take care of its money 
without depending on the banks. The people did not like 
the idea. They said the government demanded hard 
money and was going to build a treasury for it, while they 
had to take soft or paper money and look out for it them- 
selves. Still the year before his term expired the Presi- 




Martin Van Buren. 



35^ United States History for Schools 

dent secured the passage of the Independent Treasury law. 
The Treasury is located at Washington City. At present 
there are nine branches or sub-treasuries, located in New- 
York, Chicago, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Boston, St. 
Louis, Cincinnati, New Orleans, and Baltimore. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Why do we use the terms ''Testing" and "Straining" the 
Constitution ? 

2. State your hkes and dislikes of Jackson. 

3. Why was his election called a " revolution "? 

4. What was the " Spoils System " ? 

5. Describe the Webster-Hayne debate. 

6. What stand did Jackson take on Nullification ? 

7. Why was " The Liberator " like another " fire-bell in the night "? 

8. How was the National Bank destroyed? 

9. What were "Pet Banks "? 

10. What caused the panic of 1837? 

11. What was the Independent Treasury? 



CHAPTER XXXI 



A DECADE OF EXPANSION AND INVENTION 
(1840-1850) 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 31 1-336 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 260-279; Robinson's Western Europe, pp. 642-654. 

Home Readings. — Brooks's Boy Settlers ; Harris's Uncle Remus ; 
Hart's Source Reader, Vol. HI., pp. 33-38; Vol. IV., pp. 1-39; Mc- 
Murry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. HI., pp. 40-93 (Fremont), 94- 
113 (Gold in California), 165-200 (Parkman with the Sioux); Mun- 
roe's Golden Days of '49, Sparks\s Men Who Made the Nation, 
PP- 338-346 (Webster). 

357. A Log Cabin Elec- 
tion (1840). — We have 
seen how Jackson's elec- 
tion was apolitical "rev- 
olution " (§ 347) because 
there were so many new 
elements in it. He was 
succeeded by his friend 
Van Buren, who was an 
Eastern man, and who 
lost the support of the 
West through troubles 
growing out of the panic. 
He was nominated for a 
second term, and the Na- 
tional Republicans, then 

known as Whigs, nomi- William henry Harrison. 

2A 353 




354 United States History for Schools 



nated for their ticket General William Henry Harrison, the 
Indian fighter (§ 295), and John Tyler. 

A Democratic politician declared that if Harrison had a 
log cabin in Ohio and a barrel of cider he would not care 
for the White House. The Whigs caught up the idea at 
once, and there were soon processions through the towns 

with little log cabins and 
barrels of cider on 
wagons. Enthusiasm 
ran high. The marchers 
shouted : " Van ! Van ! 
is a used-up man ! " and 
the other cry : " Tippe- 
canoe and Tyler too ! " 
The Whigs were suc- 
cessful. Harrison was 
elected, but he died just 
one month after he was 
inaugurated. He had 
grown old ; he had not 
spared himself in the 
campaign ; and after in- 
auguration a swarm of 
office seekers worried 
him into the grave. For the first time a Vice President 
succeeded to the presidency. 

358. Vigor of the West. — It was a greater West that 
rallied so strongly to the side of Harrison than the West 
that had shouted for Jackson. Black Hawk, the Indian 
chief who disputed the white man's possession of Illinois, 
Iowa, and Wisconsin, was defeated (1832) and driven farther 
west. Fort Dearborn on the southwestern shore of Lake 




John Tyler. 



A Decade of Expansion and Invention 355 



Michigan had gathered to itself enough cabins and houses 
to be called a town when it took the name of Chicago (1833). 
There were many other new towns and cities in the West. 
Foreign people were coming to the United States at the 
rate of more than sixty thousand a year. Many of them 
went at once to the new lands of the West. Indiana had 
more than 600,000 population ; Illinois, 400,000; and Mich- 
igan, 200,000. 

The people had increased so fast that two new states 
were organized — -Arkansas (1836) and Michigan (1837). 




UNITED STATES 

IN 1840. 

(.Martin Van Buren's Administraticnli 

r~| T.rrilorie, 

EnBli* Po»s. 
|inHlR«ii. ofTeiai 



It should be noticed that the slavery balance of power was 
still preserved, Arkansas being slave and Michigan free. 
There were then twenty-six states, thirteen on each side of 
the slavery question. 

359. One Invention that helped the West. — There were 
a great many inventions in this period that helped the 



2^6 United States History for Schools 



world at large, but some of them were particularly helpful 
to the West on account of the peculiar needs of that section 
at the time. One of these was the reaper. Cyrus Hall 
McCormick was a Virginia boy who invented two valuable 
plows, and then with his own hands built the first practical 
reaping machine that was ever made (1831). He made 
improvements on his machine, but had to go to the West to 
get a big enough field for his enterprise. He built large 




War Dance by Indians. 

works in Chicago (1847). .Before that invention grain was 
harvested with scythes and sickles. The new machine did 
the work of many hands, and did it better. In England 
such inventions led to machine-smashing riots (§ 314), but 
conditions were very different in the West. There were 
miles upon miles of new lands waiting for the plows and 
reapers. There was abundant work for all. What the 
cotton gin did for the cotton crop in the South (§ 258) the 
reaper did for the grain crops in the West, except for this 



A Decade of Expansion and Invention 357 

difference : the reaper worked more in the interest of free- 
dom than did the cotton gin. William H. Seward said : 
"Owing to Mr. McCormick's invention, the line of civiliza- 
tion moves westward thirty miles each year." McCormick 
was highly honored at home and abroad. He was made an 
officer of the French Legion of Honor and a member of 
the French Academy of Sciences for " having done more 
for the cause of agriculture than any other living man." 

360. Machines for threshing Grain. — Just as in the case 
of the reaper, the American farmers welcomed the threshing 
machines. It was slow and laborious work to maul the 
kernels of grain out of the heads with the old-fashioned 
flail. Some farmers trod it out with the tramping feet of 
horses. Even then the work was only half done, for the 
grain must be tossed in the air to let the wind blow away 
the chaff. A cylinder with rows of teeth was formed to 
tear the kernels from the heads. Then a " fan mill" was 
invented to sift the grain and blow away the chaff. The 
two machines were then united, and soon the threshing 
machine was invented. This, with the reaper, helped the 
farmers to conquer the prairies more rapidly and to gain 
greater profits from their crops. 

361. Some Other Useful Inventions. — Amasa Goodyear 
was the first to make the hayforks of spring steel instead 
of wrought iron, but his son's inventive mind ran in a 
different line. The name of Charles Goodyear will forever 
be associated with rubber. At first rubber was used to 
erase pencil marks. Goodyear devoted his life and the 
fortunes of friends to an effort to make rubber more useful. 
Shoes could be made in winter, but the material would 
melt in summer. Goodyear's family was in want, he was 
often in jail for debt, and he even sold his children's school- 



2^S United States History for Schools 

books to get money for his experiments. He was called 
"an India-rubber maniac," and he was described as "a 
man with an India-rubber coat on, India-rubber shoes, an 
India-rubber cap, and in his pocket an India-rubber purse 
and not a cent in it." He kept on until he won success. 
Others obtained riches from his patents. He got no 
riches, but was accustomed to poverty. Before he died 
he was honored in England, France, and America. The 
whole world has been greatly benefited by his inventions. 

Robert Hoe came from England to America, and began 
making hand printing presses. His son, Richard March 
Hoe, continued the business, and in- 
vented wonderful improvements to 
printing machinery until newspapers 
could be printed, cut, and folded as 
fast as the eye could follow. Papers 
like the New York "Sun" were en- 
^^^ larged and sold for a cent a copy. 
'^ People were bewildered by such prog- 
ress. 

Elias Howe was the son of a Massa- 

As Howe's sewixng chusetts farmer. He got work in a 
Machine WAS Invented. 

factory at fifty cents a day, and at spare 

moments he worked on an invention which appeared in 

1845 as the first sewing machine. His patents earned for 

him more than two millions of dollars. 

Friction matches were invented in England (1836), and 
when the invention was brought to America boys were no 
longer sent to the nearest neighbor's home to " borrow a 
little fire." 

On the monument of Dr. William T. G. Morton are 
these words : " Before that discovery, surgery was agony ; 




A Decade of Expansion and Invention 359 



since, science has controlled pain." This refers to the dis- 
covery of the use of inhaling vapor of ether to deaden pain 
before a surgical operation (1846). Dr. Horace Wells had 
already used " laughing gas " (1844) for a similar effect in 
extracting teeth. Millions of sufferers have had cause to 
be grateful for those two discoveries. 

362. Coal and Iron. — The coal and iron industries were 
early developed in small ways (§313)- When hard coal, 
or anthracite, was first found in Pennsylvania, it was sup- 
posed to be too hard to use as fuel, so it was used as gravel 
on roads. Its use as fuel brought important changes in the 
manufacturing business. The use of iron also advanced 
rapidly. Canals and railroads were built to handle the 
increasing business. Pittsburg became the center of the 
coal and iron trade of the United States, and Pennsylvania 
advanced to the rank of second state in the Union. 

363. The Railroad Improved. —As already stated (§ 340), 
George Stephenson has the credit of inventing the railroad 
locomotive in England. Peter Cooper made the first loco- 
motive in America (1830), and devised a most important 
improvement on the English locomotive. The device 
enabled the locomotive to travel over a relatively sharp 
curve. Before that improvement the engine could haul 
cars on straight rails, but the road had to stop at the first 
hill or tunnel through it.' After the invention the road 
could curve around the hill. It could be built through the 
mountains. It could reach and serve the West. By 1840 
there were nearly three thousand miles of railroads in the 
United States. Passengers and freight were carried from 
Boston to Buffalo, and in ten years more the distant city of 
Chicago was reached. It was then easier to travel those 
great distances than to go from New York to Boston at the 



360 United States History for Schools 



time of framing the Constitution. There was no longer 
so much doubt as to whether the republic could suc- 
ceed over so large an area. Iron rails and steam brought 
the states ever closer together, and helped to increase the 
volume of business from day to day. The stagecoach 
and freighting teams were no longer supreme. The in- 
crease of freight in the United States has been so great 

that if the railroads all 
stopped and the freight were 
moved by teams, it would 
cost more in one year than 
the construction of all the 
railroads has cost. 

364. The Electric Tele- 
graph. — It is now well 
known that the railroads 
could not move many trains 
with speed or safety without 
the use of the electric tele- 
graph. That invention was 
made by Samuel F. B. 
Morse, an artist and pro- 
fessor of literature. He 
was assisted by Alfred Vail, 
in whose father's shop the instrument was perfected. It 
was a big undertaking to build and equip a long line, and 
needed the help of some government. After waiting four 
years Morse was rewarded by help from Congress. The 
first telegraph line in the world was built from Washington 
to Baltimore, and on May 24, 1844, Professor Morse, sur- 
rounded by many of the chief officers, stepped to the in- 
strument in the Supreme Court Room. He ticked a brief 




Samuel F. B. Morse. 



A Decade of Expansion and Invention 361 



message, and it was at once sent back to Washington — 
" What hath God wrought ? " Those four words from the 
Bible announced one of the greatest achievements in the 
world's history. 

365. Express. — William Frederick Harnden began to 
carry packages in a hand bag from Boston to New York 
(1839). It soon grew in volume as a business. On his 
monument in Mount Auburn Cemetery near Boston, Harn- 
den is called " Founder of the Express Business in 
America." 

366. Steamships. — Engines and boilers were so im- 
proved, steamboats so much increased in power, and coal 
was found so much better than wood as fuel for such 
work, that the Sirins and the Great Western crossed the 
Atlantic (1837) as steamships, and the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany sent the steamer Beaver around into the Pacific 
Ocean for use in the fur trade on the northwest coast of 
America. While the railroad linked the states more closely 
together, the steamship did a similar work for the nations. 

John Ericsson, who came to America from Sweden, was 
a wonderful inventor. When only eleven years old, he 
made, with his own hands and from plans he had drawn 
himself, a miniature sawmill. He invented many things. 
Under orders from the United States he drew designs for 
the warship Princeton (184O, to be equipped with his 
newly invented screw propeller. The success of that one 
boat changed the navies of the world and caused changes 
also in the plans of merchant steamers. Very soon a 
" side-wheeler " on the ocean was not to be seen. All 
became propellers. 

367. The Growth of American Literature. — Noah Web- 
ster, who while a college student had helped to welcome 



362 United States History for Schools 



Washington to New Haven (§ 184), was one of the most 
famous literary men in America. After many years of hard 
work he had published his great dictionary. Before that 
the best dictionary of the English language was Johnson's, 
pubUshed first in London in 1755. Americans found it 
much at fault, for it omitted many words that were common 




in the United States, such as "congress," " savings bank," 
" prairie," and others. Webster's dictionary at once took 
the place of the older work. 

Following such pioneers as Irving, Cooper, and Bryant 
(§ 318) came such poets and writers as Whittier, Long- 
fellow, Lowell, Holmes, Poe, Emerson, and Hawthorne. 
Audubon published his beautifully illustrated work on the 
"Birds of North America," Catlin drew pictures of Indians 



A Decade of Expansion and Invention 2^3 

for his book, and George Bancroft wrote the first history 
of the United States. 

368. Better Schools. — The newer states of the West had 
strong ideas of the rights of citizens. They held that every 
free man should have the right to vote, while in many of 
the older states there were restrictions on voting. Some- 
how free voting always encouraged free schools. The 
West had such schools from the early days of settlement. 
Free schools also increased in the East. The South did 
not develop public schools as early as the other sections, 
but there grew up a large number of private schools and 
academies in the South. 

Besides the increased literature, better schools, more 
magazines, and cheaper newspapers, there was an addi- 
tional agency of education for the people in the Lyceum 
or lecture courses. Thousands of people were enabled to 
hear addresses from the most talented men of the country. 

369. The Mormon Religion. — Joseph Smith, *a native of 
Vermont, while living at Palmyra, New York, announced 
that he had received from an angel some golden plates, on 
which were engraved characters which he translated into 
the Book of Mormon. He organized a new church. With 
some of his followers Smith moved to Ohio, then to Mis- 
souri, and finally to Illinois, where he established the 
" Holy City " of Nauvoo. He called the new organization 
the Church of the Latter Day Saints. The industry of 
his flock and their devotion to their church did not protect 
them from enemies. Smith was killed by a mob in Illinois, 
and Brigham Young became the leader. The Mormons 
moved to the far West to make a new home out of reach 
of their enemies. They settled at Salt Lake, Utah (1848), 
and by great industry soon transformed a desert into a 



364 United States History for Schools 

fruitful garden. Trouble pursued them even to that new- 
home, until they wisely decided to give up the evil practice 
of polygamy. 

370. Division of the Churches. — A division occurred in 
the Congregational Church, when the Unitarian Church 
was organized, and there were other divisions ; but the 
most significant divisions were those during the period 
from 1840 to 1850. The dispute over the slavery question 
became so bitter that even church members came close to 
quarrels. The great churches, like the Methodists and 
Baptists, and later the Presbyterians, divided into Northern 
and Southern churches of those denominations. The South- 
ern branches favored slavery, and the Northern just as 
strongly opposed it. 

371. The Abolitionists. — That division of the churches 
was one of the " signs of the times." People in all walks 
of life were divided on the slavery question. Garrison was 
mobbed in Boston (§ 351), but his work went on, and those 
who opposed slavery increased in number throughout the 
North and West. Those who wished to free the slaves, to 
abolish slavery, were called " Abolitionists." For a long 
time it was a term of reproach, for even in the North busi- 
ness men wanted to stop the agitation so that business 
would continue to prosper. They said the agitators were 
troublesome theorists. But the Abolitionists continued 
to agitate. The bitterness increased. There were not 
many Abolitionists in the South. The people there were 
strongly opposed to the agitators in the North. The most 
outspoken ones in the South were called " Fire-eaters." 

372. John Quincy Adams and the " Gag Rules." — After 
John Quincy Adams left the presidency, he was sent to 
Congress from Massachusetts. He remained there so long 



A Decade of Expansion and Invention 365 

and was so forceful in debate that he was called "Old Man 
Eloquent." One favorite form the Abolitionists had of 
fighting slavery was the sending of petitions against it to 
Congress. The people of the South were opposed to this 
form of attack. Some people of the North were also op- 
posed to it. The House of Representatives adopted rules 
(1836) against allowing such petitions to be read in Con- 
gress. When the vote was being taken on those " Gag 
Rules," Adams arose, and amid cries of " Order ! " he de- 
clared they were in violation of the Constitution and the 
rights of his constituents. Of course he voted " No " with 
the minority. For nine years he kept up the fight, often 
single-handed, until the rules were repealed (1845). Such 
a brave fighter was sure to win the respect of friend and 
foe. On February 21, 1848, the grand old man, nearly 
eighty-one years of age, was at his seat in the House of 
Representatives when he fell to the floor in a stroke of 
paralysis. Democrats and Whigs rushed to his side with 
sympathetic sorrow. He was carried to the Speaker's 
room, where he died two days later. His last words were : 
"This is the last of earth. I am content." 

373. "Dorr's Rebellion " (1842). — The restrictions on 
voting (§ 368) caused a disturbance in Rhode Island that 
is known as Dorr's Rebellion. That state still clung to 
its old colonial charter after all the other states had 
adopted constitutions. Under that charter no man was 
allowed to vote who was not a property owner. Under 
the lead of Thomas W. Dorr the non-voters adopted a 
constitution and elected Dorr governor. The property- 
owning voters objected. Both sides rushed to arms, but 
Dorr's men deserted him when United States troops ap- 
peared on the scene. Dorr's '* government " fell, but the 



^66 United States History for Schools 



lesson was not lost. A constitution was adopted, and the 
people got more rights. The disturbance then quieted 
down. 

374. Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842). — Another war 
was threatened between Great Britain and the United 
States, on account of the disputed boundary line between 
Canada and the United States. An effort had been made 
to settle the dispute by the treaty of 18 18, but the terms 
were not clear enough, and both sides continued to dispute. 
Lord Ashburton, the British Minister to the United States, 
and Daniel Webster, Secretary of State in President 
Tyler's Cabinet, framed a treaty to settle the dispute. The 

boundary was fixed along the 
northern part of Maine and 
along the forty-ninth parallel 
from the Lake of the Woods to 
the Rocky Mountains. The 
land of Old Oregon, west of the 
Rocky Mountains, was still 
open to settlers from both na- 
tions. 

375. "Fifty-four Forty or 
Fight!" — The northern boun- 
dary of the Old Oregon Coun- 
try was fixed by two treaties 
with Russia at 54° 40' of north 
latitude (§ 332). When the campaign of 1844 approached, 
James K. Polk, the Democratic candidate, came out boldly 
with the demands of " Fifty-four Forty or Fight," and " All 
of Oregon and All of Texas ! " 

Polk was elected, but his campaign pledges were kept 
in ways that must have been surprising even to himself. 




James K. Polk. 



A Decade of Expansion and Invention 367 



We did not get the " Fifty-four Forty " boundary, nor 
did we fight for it. On the other hand, we not only got all 
of Texas, but a vast area in addition, and before that trans- 
action was finished we did have a war. 

376. The Oregon Country. — The United States had 
good claims to part of the Oregon Country (§ 294), and 
Great Britain recognized that fact at the end of the War 
of 1 812 (§ 311). But Great Britain also had just as good 
claims based on discovery, exploration, and occupation. 
By two treaties (18 18 and 1827) the two nations agreed 
that the Oregon Country should remain open to settlement 
by people from either or both countries, leaving to the 
future the settlement as to which flag should remain there 
permanently. The British Hudson's Bay Company had 
many trading posts and many settlers. The Americans 
had a few mission stations and many settlers, but all of 
them south of the Columbia River. It was therefore a 
compromise when the treaty (1846) finally settled the mat- 
ter by continuing the forty-ninth parallel boundary from 
the Rocky Mountains to the sea. That compromise 
treaty was a triumph for the Americans. It was made 
possible by the missionaries, and more especially by the 
pioneers who were making their homes in the new lands. 
Those homes were counted stronger "possession" than 
the fur-trading posts of the British. Before the treaty 
was signed, there were about seven thousand American 
pioneers in Oregon. The importance of that expansion is 
realized when it is remembered that out of the Old Oregon 
Country have since been organized the large states of 
Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and parts of the states of 
Montana and Wyoming. The total area was three hun- 
dred thousand square miles, or more than six times as 
great as the large state of New York. 



368 United States History for Schools 

377. The Lone Star Republic becomes the State of Texas. 

— -The people of the South were very anxious to have 
Texas annexed to the United States, because it meant that 
from that area at least one large state, and possibly several 
smaller ones, would be added to the Union far enough 
south to insure their being in favor of slavery. The North 
was opposed to the plan, and delayed action. 

Texas had been a part of Mexico, but seceded (1835), 
and at once asked for admission to the United States. 
When the question came before President Van Buren, he 
refused to give his consent, for he felt sure it would bring 
on a war with Mexico. That nation still claimed the 
seceded state. Texas then organized a government of 
her own, and called it the Republic of Texas. The flag of 
this republic had a single star, and so people called it the 
" Lone Star Republic." 

Northern opposition to annexation began to weaken 
when it was learned that. European nations were courting 
the friendship of Texas. Some feared those European 
nations might secure possession and make Texas one of 
their colonies. Then came Polk's successful campaign, 
with the ^cry of " All of Oregon and All of Texas ! " In 
the first year of his administration Texas was admitted 
to the Union as a slave state (1845). 

378. Balance of Power in the Senate Restored. — Florida 
was admitted to the Union the same year as Texas (1845). 
That destroyed the balance of power, for there were then 
fifteen slave states against thirteen free states. In the 
Senate the slave states had a majority of four votes. 
The admission of Iowa as a free state (1846) cut that 
majority down to two votes. Two years later Wisconsin 
was admitted (1848) as a free state. The balance of 



A Decade of Expansion and Invention 369 

power was restored for what proved to be the last time. 
In a few more years the free states got the majority and 
held it. 

379. Cause of War with Mexico. — At the very time that 
the Secretary of State and the British Minister were fram- 
ing the peaceful treaty to settle the dispute over Oregon, 
a different kind of problem was being considered in the 
Secretary of War's office. Texas claimed the Rio Grande 
as her southern boundary. Mexico claimed the Nueces 
River. That left the southern corner of Texas as disputed 
land. President Polk sided with Texas, and sent General 
Zachary Taylor to protect American interests in that region. 
When the Httle American army refused to leave, the Mexi- 
cans crossed the Rio Grande and killed every man of a 
small scouting party (April 23, 1S46). President Polk sent 
a message to Congress in which he stated that the Mexicans 
" invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the 
American soil." Congress at once declared war against 
Mexico (May 13, 1846). 

One member of Congress was not satisfied that the 
blood was shed on " our own soil." He introduced some 
resolutions asking for information about the exact spot 
where the blood was shed. Those resolutions are known 
as the " Spot Resolutions." The congressman who in- 
troduced them was Abraham Lincoln. He was then a 
Whig, and the Whigs were opposed to the war ; but after it 
was begun they voted for supplies and men to finish it. 

380. The Battles of " Old Rough and Ready." — General 
Taylor was affectionately called " Old Rouah and Ready " 
by his men. He did not wait for Congress to declare war. 
As soon as his scouting party had been attacked, he gave 
battle to the Mexican army and defeated it at Palo Alto 



A Decade of Expansion and Invention 371 

(May 8) and at Resaca de la Palma (May 9, 1846). The 
Mexicans then retreated to their own side of the Rio 
Grande, and Taylor followed them. After resting and get- 
ting recruits he attacked the strong Mexican city of Mon- 
terey. Four days of desperate fighting were necessary to 
capture that city (September 24), The Mexicans had bar- 
ricaded the streets, made forts of the houses, and fought 
bravely, but finally lost the battle. 

Taylor sent part of his army south to meet General 
Scott; and the Mexican leader. General Santa Anna, 
thought that the time had come to conquer Taylor's 
weakened army. He marched to the attack with a force 
four times as large as the American army. But the Ameri- 
cans had a strong position at Buena Vista, and after a 
whole day of stubborn fighting (February 23, 1847) ^^^ 
Mexicans retreated. That was Taylor's last battle. He 
returned to the United States and was hailed as a hero. 

381. California and New Mexico Conquered. — Among 
the plans of the American government were the protection 
of American interests on the Pacific coast and the possible 
conquest of land there. A small fleet of warships was. 
sent to the coast of California, and John C. Fremont, the 
" pathfinder," who was exploring overland roads to the 
coast, was ordered to help protect American interests. 
There was not much fighting. The small Mexican forces 
were subdued, California was conquered, and the Stars 
and Stripes floated over a new region that would soon 
prove a wonderland. 

General Stephen W. Kearny was ordered to seize Santa 
Fe. With an army of eighteen hundred men he accom- 
plished his object without opposition. After becoming 
master of New Mexico he marched to California and 
helped to complete the conquest of that region. 



372 United States History for Schools 

382. General Winfield Scott in Southern Mexico. — The 

Mexicans were not completely conquered by General 
Taylor's victories in the North. General Scott, after nine 
days of fighting, took the city of Vera Cruz (March 27, 1847) 
and the fortress San Juan de Ulua, called the " Gibraltar 
of Mexico." Starting over the mountains toward the capi- 
tal, he was resisted at the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo, 
where he won another victory (April 18). During the 
summer he completed the march to the city of Mexico, and 
around that great city fought five stubborn battles. All 
were victories, but they were won at great loss of life. He 
finally marched his army into the city in triumph (Septem- 
ber 14, 1847), and raised the Stars and Stripes in the enemy's 
capital. 

383. End of War. — When the city of Mexico was taken 
the war was practically ended. It had lasted two years. 
It was remarkable that the Americans had won every bat- 
tle, though in each case the Mexican army was the larger. 
The expansion caused by the annexation of Texas and the 
conquests from Mexico brought an area of nearly one mil- 
lion square miles, or about one third of the present United 
States. After acquiring so much land, the United States 
could afford to be generous. When the treaty of peace 
was signed (1848) the United States agreed to pay Mexico 
fifteen million dollars, " in consideration of the extension 
acquired by the boundaries of the United States," as the 
words of the treaty put it. We also agreed to pay certain 
claims against Mexico which amounted to about three mil- 
lion dollars. Peace was restored, and it was thought that 
the boundaries were permanently settled. But a dispute 
arose over the southern boundary of what are now Arizona 
and New Mexico. The United States settled this dispute 



A Decade of Expansion and Invention 373 

by acquiring more land (1853) and paying Mexico ten mil- 
lion dollars more. 

384. The Wilmot Proviso. — Early in the war the anti- 
slavery people were alarmed over the possibility of obtain- 
ing a large area of land that would be open for the 
extension of slavery. David Wilmot, a Democratic 
representative from Pennsylvania, introduced a measure 
to exclude slavery forever from any lands that we might 
acquire from Mexico. This became known as the " Wilmot 
Proviso." It did not become a law, but it raised a question 
over which there was long and bitter debate. 

385. Other Results of the War. — Besides enormously 
expanding the republic and raising a new storm of debate 
on the slavery question, the war gave training to a large 
number of young men who were to become noted officers in 
the next war. Some of those young men were Ulysses S. 
Grant, Robert E. Lee, William T. Sherman, " Stonewall " 
Jackson, George G. Meade, Jefferson Davis, Isaac I. 
Stevens, and George E. Pickett. They were all on one 
side in the Mexican War. They would be on different 
sides in the next war. 

General Zachary Taylor, as one result of the war, was 
nominated for President by the Whig party, and was 
triumphantly elected (1848). There was a curious twist 
on the slavery question in that election. The Whigs, 
whose majority was in the free North, chose for their 
candidate Taylor, a Southerner and slaveholder. The 
Democrats, whose majority was in the South, chose 
Senator Lewis Cass, a Northerner who held no slaves. In 
selecting the popular war hero, Taylor, the Whigs set aside 
their two best statesmen, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, 
each of whom was the favorite of many people for the 
high position of President. 



374 United States History for Schools 

386. " Gold ! Gold ! Gold ! " — While the agents of 
the two repubHcs were drawing up the treaty of peace in 
Mexico, a man rushed through the streets of the village of 
San Francisco, his hat in one hand, in the other a bottle 
filled with yellow nuggets, shouting wildly : " Gold ! Gold ! 




Sutter's Mill in California. 



Gold!" Sure enough. The great discovery was made 
just as California became American territory. 

Captain John A. Sutter was a native of Switzerland who 
had a large grant of land on American River about one 
hundred miles northeast of San Francisco. While one of 



A Decade of Expansion and Invention 375 

his men was digging a mill race, he found lumps of gold. 
The news spread like fire in the dried grass of a prairie. 

In one year more than eighty thousand men fiocked into 
the rich new "gold diggings." They risked the dangers 
from Indians, starvation, and accident by crossing the 
plains and the mountains. They risked the danger from 
tropical fevers by crossing the Isthmus of Panama to get 
to San Francisco. They risked dangers at sea by the long 
voyage around Cape Horn. They risked all and dared all 
for a chance to dig a fortune out of the ground. 

Many people came to the " diggings " from Europe, but 
most of them journeyed from other parts of the United 
States. The rapid growth of California in people and 
business affected the whole nation. Before studying those 
results it is best to glance briefly at affairs in Europe. 
Three hundred thousand people were coming from there 
into the United States every year at that time. 

387. The Year- of Revolutions in Europe (1848). — The 
February (1848) revolution in France, by which Louis 
Philippe lost the throne and Louis Bonaparte became 
President of the restored republic, started a convulsion 
throughout PZurope until, as one writer said, not a day passed 
without a constitution being granted. France retained 
the republican form of government for about three years, 
when Louis Bonaparte became emperor with the title of 
Napoleon III. (1852). 

Austria and Germany were torn by the revolution. 
Prince Metternich of Austria, who had ruled Europe 
through the "Holy Alliance" and the "congresses" 
(§ 327) that followed, was driven from Vienna, and the 
Emperor fied to the Tyrol. Representatives of German 
countries came together to organize a German empire. 



376 United States History for Schools 

The king of Prussia consented to give his own people a 
constitution, but when the popular parliament offered him 
the imperial crown, he called it a " crown of mud and 
wood" and declined it. Those who favored greater liber- 
ties were suppressed, and many of them fled to Switzerland, 
England, and America. 

Italy was struggling for independent existence, but the 
Austrian army was too strong, and more years were neces- 
sary — years of planning, struggling, and fighting. 

In England the people demanded a charter of greater 
liberties. More men wanted the right to vote. They were 
called " Chartists." Though they were not successful at 
the time (1848), their agitation caused much alarm, and 
most of the reforms they demanded were afterwards 
granted. 

Many participants in those popular movements in Europe 
came to America, and naturally took sides against slavery, 
which was then in the minds of all. One great German, 
Carl Schurz, came at that time after escaping from a Ger- 
man prison. He lived to have the pleasure of being sent 
back to Germany as the United States Minister. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the election of William Henry Harrison. 

2. Show how the West had grown. 

3. What was the importance of McCormick's reaper ? 

4. Describe the first threshing machines. 

5. Why does the name ''Goodyear'" always suggest rubber? 

6. What invention does the name " Hoe " suggest ? 

7. Name some other inventions of this period. 

8. Show the importance of coal, iron, railroads, telegraph, express, 
and steamships. 

9. Who were some of the American writers ? 
10. How were the schools improved ? 



A Decade of Expansion and Invention 377 

11. How did the Mormon church begin ? 

12. Why did the older churches divide ? 

13. What was an "Abolitionist " ? a " Fire-eater" ? 

14. What did John Quincy Adams do about the '• (iag Rules " ? 

15. What was " Dorr's Rebellion" ? 

16. What was meant by '* Fifty-four P'orty or Fight"? 

17. How was the ownership of Oregon settled? 

18. What lands did Oregon then embrace ? 

19. How did Texas join the Union? 

20. How was the " Balance of Power " restored for the last time ? 

21. What caused the Mexican War? 

22. Describe the victories of General Taylor. 

23. How were California and New Mexico conquered ? 

24. How did General Scott capture the Mexican capital ? 

25. What were the boundaries when the treaty was signed ? 

26. What was the " Wilmot Proviso " ? 

27. What were the results of gold discoveries in California ? 

28. How did the European revolutionary movements of 1848 affect 
America ? 



CHAPTER XXXII 

A DECADE THAT LED TO WAR (1850-1860) 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 339-363 , Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 279-296. 

Home Readings. — Butterworth's Log Schoolhouse ; Hart's Source 
Reader, Vol. in., pp. 265-270; Vol. IV., pp. 41-115; Longfellow's 
Slave's Dream ; Smead's Memorials of a Southern Planter ; Sparks's 
Men who made the Nation, pp. ZAI-yjl (Greeley) ; Stowe's Uncle 
Tom's Cabin ; 'Whittier's Slave Siiips. 

388. Character of the Decade. — The slavery question 
was dominant for a period of ten years (1850-1860). It 
colored and inspired the literature of the time. It formed 
the themes for orators, preachers, debaters, and newspaper 
men. It influenced politics in the states and the nation. 
It was supposed to have been settled by compromise, but 
the debates broke out afresh with greater fury a short time 
after the compromise. It might truthfully be said that that 
was the Slavery Decade of American history. 

389. California Another " Fire-bell in the Night." — The 
fear that much of the new lands conquered from Mexico 
would be opened to slavery caused the North to rally round 
the " Wilmot Proviso" (§ 384). They became ever more 
stubborn against such an extension of slave territory. The 
South was just as active on its side. 

Many Southerners went to California, but the Northerners 
were in the majority. While the officers of the army were 
still in charge, the people sent delegates to a convention at 
Monterey (1849) ^o form a constitution for a new state. 

378 



A Decade that Led to War 379 

They did not propose to go through the form of waiting 
as a territory. When the constitution was finished, it was 
found to be against slavery. The whole world had its 
attention drawn to California on account of gold. That 
new constitution drew the attention of the people of the 
United States, north and south, in the same direction for 
political reasons. 

390. The Issue closely Drawn. — John C. Calhoun, leader 
of the South, declared that if California were admitted as a 
free state, arrangements must be made for another slave 
state. The nation could not exist unless the balance of 
power was retained. Senator Chase, a free-soil Democrat 
from Ohio, declared that the public domain must be kept 
free of slavery. Calhoun urged his followers to prepare 
for resistance, as the South was stronger then than it would 
ever be again. President Taylor was still " Old Rough 
and Ready." Though he was a Southern slaveholder, he 
declared that the people of California had the right to say 
for themselves whether they would have a free or a slave 
state. He favored the admission of the state under its new 
constitution. There were many people who were disgusted 
with the whole agitation. They were merchants and manu- 
facturers who were getting rich from the business stimu- 
lated by the California gold. But the leaders knew that it 
was much more' important for the future to settle those big 
political questions than to secure a few fortunes while the 
gold harvest lasted. 

391. Trouble threatened in Texas. — There were other 
questions besides California that demanded attention. One 
of these was the claim of Texas to certain lands in 
New Mexico. President Taylor expressed his willing- 
ness for New Mexico to adopt a constitution just as 



380 United States History for Schools 



California had done. Then Texas started to raise an 
army to assert her ownership of the disputed lands. 
President Taylor promptly issued orders for an army to 
resist the Texans. Southern members of Congress called 
on the President, and expressed a fear that Southern officers 
,- _. in the army would 

not obey his orders. 
" Then," said Tay- 
lor, "I will command 
the army in person, 
and any man who 
is taken in treason 
against the Union, I 
will hang as I did the 
deserters and spies 
at Monterey." That 
sounded just like 
"Old Hickory," 
some eighteen years 
earlier (§ 350). 
There was then a 
pause in warlike 
preparations, and the 
"Great Peace- 
maker " appeared upon the scene for the last time. 

392. The Compromise of 1850. — Henry Clay, the "Great 
Peacemaker," was seventy-three years of age. He had 
been three times a candidate for the presidency, and was 
greatly disappointed that he had not been elected. Many 
other people were also disappointed for the same reason. 
Clay had given his country nearly half a century of valu- 
able service in other positions. He had made treaties ; he 




Zachary Taylor. 



A Decade that Led to War 381 

had been chosen United States senator four times ; he had 
been elected to the House of Representatives six times, and 
each time was chosen Speaker ; and he had served four 
years as Secretary of State under President John Quincy 
Adams. He was one of America's most eloquent orators, 
and was a loved political chief. He thought war was near 
in 1850, and he pleaded for a peaceful compromise as he 
had never pleaded before. 

Daniel Webster was another of the great orators. He 
also had rendered valuable service to his country, and was 
disappointed at not reaching the highest office. He wished 
to prevent war, and in one famous oration in the Senate, 
known in history as the "Seventh of March Speech," he 
advocated Clay's compromise. But Webster was from 
Massachusetts, and the North accused him of deserting the 
cause of freedom. The " Quaker Poet," Whittier, wrote 
" Ichabod " to express his resentment. 

Clay's compromise sought to settle all the impending 
disputes. It embraced the following five points, the first 
two in favor of the North, the others in favor of the South : 
( I) California was to be admitted to the Union with her 
free constitution ; (2) the slave trade (but not slavery) was 
to be abolished in the District of Columbia ; (3) in the lands 
obtained from Mexico, outside of California, the settlers 
were to be left free to determine for themselves whether 
or not they would have slaves; (4) Texas was to be paid 
ten million dollars for the lands she claimed in New Mexico ; 
(5) Congress was to enact a strict fugitive slave law. As 
the bill to enact these measures carried so many items it 
was called the " Omnibus Bill." 

393. Two Deaths during the Debate. — The debate and 
work of committees on the compromise lasted from 



382 United States History for Schools 



January to September. Senator Seward was opposed to 
any compromise with the evil of slavery. He declared 
that in such matters conscience was a " higher law " than 

the Constitution. In the 
midst of the debate John 
C. Calhoun, leader of the 
South, died, and in a few 
months the nation also 
lost its President. For 
the second time a Vice 
President succeeded to 
the higher office. The 
compromise was com- 
pleted, and Clay was 
satisfied. With the idea 
that the slavery question 
was permanently settled, 
the nation was lulled to 
sleep for a short time. 

394. The Panama 
Canal Treaty. — While 
the compromise was 
being debated, Secretary of State Clayton concluded with 
Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, the British Minister, a treaty 
(1850), by which the United States and Great Britain 
should have joint control over any canal that might be 
built across the Isthmus of Panama. The great increase 
of traffic by that route on account of the gold discovery in 
California made it seem as if a canal would soon be 
built. 

395. The Presidential Campaign of 1852. — The Whigs 
again set aside their statesmen, and nominated another mili- 




MiLLARD Fillmore. 



A Decade that Led to War 



3^3 



tary hero — General Winfield Scott. The Democrats nom- 
inated General Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire. The 
Free Soil party was more outspoken than ever against any 
bargains with slavery. 
Many Whigs were dis- 
gusted with their party for 
accepting the Compro- 
mise of 1850. The Dem- 
ocrats alone seemed satis- 
fied with their party, with 
their candidate, and with 
the compromise. They 
won an easy victory. Be- 
fore election day arrived, 
both Henry Clay and 
Daniel Webster were 
dead. The old leaders 
were gone, but new ones 
quickly took their places. 
Jefferson Davis became 
spokesman for the South, 
and Charles Sumner became one of the leaders of the 
North. 

396. Defeat of the Fugitive Slave Law. — The Fugitive 
Slave Law passed by Congress as part of the Compromise 
of 1850 was a strict measure. No longer were state 
officers and courts to be used for the capture and return of 
runaway slaves. Under the new law the United States 
officers and courts were to be used. A United States 
marshal could call on any citizen to help him. The 
Southerners were watchful of what they believed were 
their rights; but, while some were anxious to allow the 




Franklin Pierce. 



384 United States History for Schools 

slavery troubles to slumber, there were many others in the 
North who grew more determined every day in their efforts 
to defeat the Fugitive Slave Law and ultimately to abolish 
slavery. In the border states the capture of slaves pro- 
duced a class of men known as " slave hunters," who used 
bloodhounds and other cruel means to catch the runaways 
for the rewards offered. Farther north the officers who 
captured negroes were often mobbed, and the slaves were 
snatched from them, to be hurried away to places of safety. 
Some of the Northern states passed Personal Liberty 
Laws to give the slaves trial by jury and other protections 
which were denied by the Fugitive Slave Law. The 
South claimed that the North was in this matter nulhfying 
a law of Congress. 

397. The Strange Underground Railroad. — Probably the 
most effective plan for obstructing the Fugitive Slave Law 
was the secret scheme known as the " Underground 
Railroad." It was called "Underground" for the good 
reason that it could not be seen, and yet colored passengers 
traveled on it for long distances. Some sympathetic white 
man would guide runaways at night to a friendly house, or 
"station." There the slaves would be given food and 
shelter until another favorable night arrived, when they 
would be hurried to the next "station." On that kind of 
" Underground Railroad " thousands of slaves were moved 
to safety and freedom in Canada. 

398. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852). — No story has had 
more immediate effect on history than Harriet Beecher 
Stowe's novel entitled " Uncle Tom's Cabin." With 
strong and dramatic pathos it told the story of slavery 
as seen in the very worst locality, the border states — 
scenes of the bloodhound slave-hunting parties. Farther 



A Decade that Led to War 385 



south there were thousands of slaves who knew nothing 
of bloodhounds, and who lived happy and contented lives 
with their masters. But in the border states there was 
enough cruelty and misery to justify the book. More 
than two hundred thousand copies were sold in one year. 
It was read everywhere, in Europe as well as in America. 
No one will ever know how many Northern people were 
influenced to become Abolitionists by reading that story. 
Rufus Choate said : " That book will make two millions 
of Abolitionists." The South hated the book, of course, 
and many in the North abused the author because her 
book was a peace disturber. William Lloyd Garrison 
wrote to Mrs. Stowe : " All the defenders of slavery have 
let me alone and are abusing you." 

399. Commodore Perry in Japan (1854). — Though not 
connected with the slavery dispute, an important event 
in American history occurred at the same time. Com- 
modore Matthew C. Perry, a brother of the hero of Lake 
Erie (§ 301), secured a treaty of friendship and commerce 
with Japan. That country had for centuries pursued the 
policy of seclusion, but the American " Sailor Diplomat " 
broke down all obstacles and opened the door through 
which the people received friends and information that 
have helped Japan become a much greater power in the 
world. Japan has cherished the memory of Commodore 
Perry, and has remained friendly to America. Since that 
time it has been necessary for the Americans to look to 
the Orient as well as to Europe to obtain a proper appre- 
ciation of the expanding history of their own nation. 

400. Eyes turned toward Cuba and Central America. — 
The Southern leaders did not give much attention to the 
new treaty with Japan. It was much more important 



386 United States History for Schools 

to them to get control of lands that might be developed 
into slave states. Bold and venturesome men made ex- 
peditions into Central America and tried to secure areas 
south of Texas. No Southern state gave authority to 
such men, or to their schemes, but the North was suspicious 
that the expeditions were parts of a general Southern 
plan. In regard to Cuba the case was different. The 
Southern leaders urged upon President Pierce the annex- 
ation of that island. The President was not sure of his 
ground. He did not know how such a step would be 
viewed by the rest of the world. He hit upon a novel 
way of getting help to solve the problem. He asked 
the United States ministers in Great Britain, France, 
and Spain to hold a meeting in Europe, to consider the 
question, and to give him the benefit of their advice. The 
three ministers met at Ostend, Belgium, and drew up a 
report (1854) for the President, saying it was their opinion 
that the acquisition of Cuba would be an advantage to 
the United States, and if Spain would not sell the island 
it would be justifiable to seize it rather than to have it 
fall under the control of negroes, as had happened in 
San Domingo. The report of the three ministers became 
known as the " Ostend Manifesto." Its advice was not 
followed by the President, and its only effect was to 
increase the bitterness of the slavery dispute. 

401. Repeal of the Missouri Compromise (1854). — In 
spite of all the irritations over the Fugitive Slave Law 
and other slavery troubles, the nation as a whole was 
trying to rest, when, all of a sudden, Stephen A. Douglas 
" threw a bone of contention among the sleeping dogs 
of war." Douglas was a small man physically, but a 
large man in intellect. He was called the " Little Giant." 



A Decade that Led to War 387 

He was a Democrat, but represented the Northern state 
of Illinois in the United States Senate. A majority of 
his party believed in slavery, but, being also a Northerner, 
he had to modify his course on that question. He came 
out strongly in favor of " Squatter Sovereignty." The 
wild lands of the West were unsurveyed, and settlers could 
not get title. But they could " squat " on claims and wait 
for the surveys. Douglas said these "squatters" should 
have the right to say "yes" or " no " on the slavery ques- 
tion. So he surprised the nation by declaring that the 
Compromise of 1850 (§ 392) had repealed the Compromise 
of 1820 (§ 325), and that the rest of the land in the 
Louisiana Purchase was open to slavery if the settlers 
or " squatters " there so desired. He introduced a bill to 
organize that region into the territories of Kansas and 
Nebraska with the question of slavery left open. The bill 
became a law. The compromises were repealed, and a 
contest was bound to follow. 

402. The Struggle in Kansas. — The anti-slavery men 
were furious over the Kansas-Nebraska law. Douglas 
was hooted in the streets. He declared that on a trip 
from Washington to Chicago he was lighted on his way 
by the flames from burning effigies of himself. Since 
Congress by passing the law had given the challenge for 
freedom or slavery in Kansas, both North and South pre- 
pared for action. 

The South had the advantage of nearness, and from 
Missouri hurried pro-slavery settlers into Kansas, who 
called their town Atchison, in honor of Senator Atchison 
of Missouri. In New England there was organized the 
"Emigrant Aid Society." The settlers sent out by that or- 
ganization were refused passage through Missouri. They 



388 United States History for Scliools 

went around by way of Iowa. When they arrived in Kan- 
sas, they called their town Lawrence, in honor of Amos 
A. Lawrence, treasurer of the " Emigrant Aid Society." 
Settlers increased from both sides, and other towns were 
established. The settlers expected trouble, and went on 
their journey fully armed. One of the Northern men who 
was earnest in the agitation was the famous Henry Ward 
Beecher. The boxes of guns and ammunition collected 
for the emigrants were with grim humor said to contain 
" Beecher's Bibles." 

Before one year had passed, the pro-slavery settlers, 
aided by voters from Missouri, elected a delegate to Con- 
gress and members of a territorial legislature. Laws 
were passed establishing slavery and punishing with death 
any one who helped slaves to escape. Though the forms 
of law were complied with, the free state men called the 
government illegal because it had been made by the help 
of " Border Ruffians " from Missouri. The free state men 
met in Topeka and adopted a free constitution and at- 
tempted to form a government of their own. 

403. Senator Sumner Assaulted (1856). — Senator Doug- 
las introduced a bill to admit Kansas to the Union. Sena- 
tor Sumner opposed the bill in a speech entitled " The 
Crime against Kansas," in which he denounced Senator 
Douglas and Senator Butler of South Carolina. A few 
days after the speech, while Sumner was at his desk writ- 
ing, Preston S. Brooks, a nephew of Senator Butler, and 
himself a representative from South Carolina, assaulted 
Sumner with a cane. It was a severe beating over the 
head from which the senator suffered for three years. 
This occurrence greatly increased the bitterness of feeling 
throughout the country. 



A Decade that Led to War 389 

404. " Bleeding Kansas." — While Congress was excited 
over the attack on Sumner, a small civil war occurred 
in Kansas. Pro-slavery men attacked Lawrence, burning 
houses and murdering. John Brown led an attack of re- 
prisal, and killed an equal number of pro-slavery men. 
United States troops, under Colonel E. V. Sumner, dis- 
persed Brown's band and drove the "Border Ruffians" 
back into Missouri, restoring temporary peace. From 
such events people called the state at that time " Bleed- 
ing Kansas." 

405. Reorganization of Political Parties (1856). — The 
Democratic party was strong in numbers and in having 
definite purposes, but there were many Northern Demo- 
crats who did not agree with the party majority on the 
slavery program. Likewise the Whig party had many 
men in the South who were willing to regulate slavery 
but not to abolish it. Finding no comfort in either of 
these older parties, the Abolitionists had organized the 
Free-Soil party. And there was still another party, that 
was gaining ground. It was a secret party, and was 
started (1848) on account of the large number of for- 
eigners coming to this country (§ 387). Their motto was 
"America for Americans." To questions about the na- 
ture of the party, the answer always was : " I do not 
know." They got the name of the " Know Nothing " 
party. They were successful in seven states, and elected 
governors and congressmen, but, as a party, became divided 
over the slavery question. The opponents of the extension 
of slavery finally combined into a new party, which took 
the name Republican. 

This new party nominated John C Fremont, the 
"pathfinder," for President, and, though the Democrats 



390 United States History for Schools 



elected their candidate, — James Buchanan, — the election 
showed that the Republicans were the second strongest 
party. The Whigs were unknown as a party after that 
election. The contests were thenceforth to be between 

the Democrats and the 
RepubHcans. 

406. Business Panic 
of 1857. — Political hfe 
and social life showed 
marked changes through 
the slavery contest. At 
the same time, but from 
wholly different causes, 
the econoniic life of the 
nation was disturbed. 
The harv^est of gold in 
California had induced 
the building of railroads 
faster than they were 
needed in the West; 
manufacturers had made 
more goods than they 
could sell ; merchants had bought more than they could 
pay for ; a day of reckoning had come. In August, 1857, 
the Ohio Life and Trust Company of Cincinnati failed 
through the fault of its New York agent. That was like a 
signal for others. Failure succeeded failure all over the 
country. A few banks were able to pay all demands upon 
them. One of these was the famous Chemical Bank of 
New York City, which had also weathered the storm in 
the similar panic of 1837 (§ 355)- 

407. The Dred Scott Decision (1857). — The financial 




James Buchanan. 



A Decade that Led to War 



39^ 



disturbance was over in about a year, but the next dis- 
turbance, political in nature, was far more serious, and 
was not fully settled until a terrible war had been fought. 
This disturbance was caused by a decision rendered by 




FREE AND ^ 
SLAVE AREAS ) o 

(18-14) 



the United States Supreme Court in a case that involved 
a slave. The slave, named Dred Scott, belonged to an 
army surgeon who had taken him to Illinois and then 
to Minnesota territory and then back again to Missouri. 
Friends of the slave helped him take his case into court, 
where it was contended that the slave had gained his 
freedom through residence on the free soil of Illinois 
and Minnesota. The case was appealed to the Supreme 
Court of the United States, where a majority of the jus- 
tices approved the decision of Chief Justice Taney. The 
decision had three important points: (i) a slave was not a 



392 United States History for Schools 

"person," but only property; (2) a slaveholder had the 
right to take his slaves into any territory or state as if they 
were horses; (3) Congress had no right to exclude slavery 
from any territory, and, therefore, the Missouri Compromise 
was unconstitutional. 

408. Effect of the Decision. — Not only did the decision 
throw open to slavery the rest of the Louisiana Purchase, 
but also the large Oregon territory, which had adopted 




Slave Territories 



laws prohibiting slavery. It was also asserted that even 
the free states might be invaded by any man who wished 
to take his slaves with him. This angered the North, 
and many people declared they would not obey such a 
decision. The South was vigilant for its rights, and 
pressed forward to take advantage of the decision. It ought 



A Decade that Led to War 



393 



to be remembered that Chief Justice Taney, in rendering 
the decision, was not actuated by personal feelings, for 
he had liberated his own slaves some years before that 

time. 

409. Slavery lost in Kansas (1857). — The angry free 
state men were not disheartened by the Dred Scott deci- 
sion. They put forth all the more energy. They even got 
control of the territorial gov- 
ernment of Kansas. But 
before giving up power the 
pro-slavery men in Kansas 
held a convention at Lc- 
compton to frame a consti- 
tution, and then asked Con- 
gress for admission to the 
Union. Senator Douglas 
knew that the free state men 
were then in a majority in 
Kansas, and, true to his 
" Squatter Sovereignty " 
theory, he opposed and de- 
feated President Buchanan 
and the rest of the Demo- 
crats who favored the admis- 
sion of Kansas as a slave 

state with the Lecompton constitution. Kansas continued 
as a territory, and awaited further developments. 

410. A Challenge to Stephen A. Douglas. —The time 
had come (1858) for Douglas to be reelected senator or 
give place to another. His brave stand against President 
Buchanan on the slavery constitution for Kansas had won 
him strength in Illinois, and even the anti-slavery men in 




Stephen A. Douglas. 



394 United States History for Schools 

the East asked the Illinois Republicans not to oppose 
Douglas. But those Republicans decided that Abraham 
Lincoln was their choice for senator. In accepting that 
nomination Lincoln made a speech that startled the whole 
nation. He declared : " A house divided against itself 
cannoi stand." In other words, the country could not 
erxist half slave and half free. " I do not expect the house 
to fall," said he ; " but I do expect that it will cease to be 
divided." 

Douglas attacked Lincoln's speech before a large audi- 
ence in Chicago. Lincoln was present, and the next night 
mad€ answer. Other speeches followed, and then Lincoln 
challenged Douglas to debate the questions of the hour 
before the voters of Illinois. The challenge was accepted. 

411. The Lincoln-Douglas Debate (1858). — There fol- 
lowed seven debates between these two masters of the art. 
Those debates constitute one of the most memorable inci- 
dents in American history. Crowds came on foot, on 
horseback, in wagons, or in trains, any way to get to the 
meeting places and to hear the contests. Douglas rode in 
a special car ; Lincoln often rode on a dusty freight train. 
Douglas held high office ; Lincoln was just an Illinois 
lawyer. Douglas was short, squarely built, and well 
groomed; Lincoln was tall, slender, and awkward. Doug- 
las was met with brass bands and committees ; Lincoln 
marched to the platform without such aids to enthusiasm. 

But Lincoln answered the senator's arguments, and drove 
home his own points so strongly and made his opponent 
answer so many leading questions that when the debates 
were finished three things had been accomplished : — 

I. Douglas had won enough votes to send him back to 
the Senate. 



A Decade that Led to War 395 



2. Douglas had answered Lincoln's questions in such 
a way as to widen the division in the Democratic party. 
He became the leader of the Northern Democrats, but the 
South would no longer follow him. 

3. Lincoln became a national figure. Before the de- 
bates he was unknown outside of Illinois. His showino- 
against the famous " Little Giant " brought him invitations 
to speak in Ohio and New York. Even the presidency 
might come within his reach. 

Of course Lincoln was disappointed in not securing the 
senatorship. In referring to the defeat he said : " It hurts 
too bad to laugh, and I'm too big to cry." Douglas de- 
clared that he had met in Congress the best debaters in 
America, and there was not one he would not rather meet 
again than Abraham Lincoln. 

412. New States and New Resources. — The North and 
the West were growing rapidly, even during the noise of 
approaching war. Minnesota was admitted to the Union 
(1858), and was followed the next year by Oregon (1859). 
Counting California, there were then three new free states 
admitted after the balance of power had been restored for 
the last time (§ 378). 

Wonderfully rich silver mines were discovered in Nevada 
(1859); two of them were called "Bonanza" because of 
their great wealth of silver ore. One group of those mines 
yielded more than two hundred and fifty million dollars. 
At the same time Colonel Drake drilled the first success- 
ful oil well in Pennsylvania (1859). Since then the oil 
found in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, New York, Te.xas, 
CaHfornia, and elsewhere in the United States has produced 
wealth almost too great to be estimated. 

413. John Brown's Raid (1859). — After his participation 



396 United States History for Schools 

in the Kansas troubles (§ 404), John Brown of Osawatomie 
disappeared from view. His next appearance was worse 
than a "fire-bell in the night" (§§ 323, 351, 389); it was 
more like an explosion of dynamite. He made a raid into 
Virginia, seized the government buildings at Harper's 
Ferry, and called on the slaves to rise and be free. A 
slave uprising was more feared in the South than war, 
pestilence, or any other form of danger. The horror of 
Brown's scheme was instantly felt throughout the South. 
The people there felt that the North was ready for any 
kind of attack. 

Colonel Robert E. Lee was sent with troop<? to capture 
Brown and his twenty men. They were tried and hanged. 
At his trial Brown declared that his only object was to 
liberate the slaves. He had not intended to commit mur- 
der or treason or to destroy property. " I feel," said he, 
" no consciousness of guilt." Governor Wise of Virginia 
said : " They are mistaken who take Brown for a madman. 
He is a bundle of the best nerves I ever saw." 

414. Lincoln electedPresident (i860). — In the campaign 
for the presidency (i860) that came two years after the 
Lincoln-Douglas debate the effects of that debate were 
plainly seen. The Northern Democrats, who believed in 
the stand taken by Douglas in the debate as well as in 
Congress, nominated him for their candidate. The South- 
ern Democrats, who would not follow Douglas, nominated 
John C. Breckinridge, and the Republicans in an exciting 
convention at Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln. On 
account of the division in the Democratic ranks, the Re- 
publicans were successful in electing Lincoln. 



A Decade that Led to War 397 



STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Show how slavery was the big question. 1 850-1 860. 

2. What kind of a constitution did the CaUfornia pioneers frame ? 

3. What agitation did that constitution start ? 

4. How did Texas add to the agitation? 

5. What did the Compromise of 1850 accompHsh? 

6. Tell about the Panama Canal treaty of that time. 

7. Describe the presidential election of 1852. 

8. Who were " slave hunters " ? 

9. What was the "underground railroad" ? 

10. Describe the influence of " Uncle Tom's Cabin." 

11. How was Japan opened to the world ? 

12. What was the " Ostend Manifesto "' ? 

13. How did the Kansas and Nebraska law repeal the Missouri 
Compromise? 

14. Why did the North and the South struggle for Kansas? 

15. What was the result of the assault on Sumner? 

16. Why was the term " Bleeding Kansas " used ? 

17. How was the Republican party organized ? 

18. Name some causes of the Panic of 1857. 

19. What was the Dred Scott decision ? 

20. How did slavery lose in Kansas ? 

21. How was the Lincoln-Douglas debate begun? 

22. What were the results of that debate ? 

23. What new resources were discovered at that time ? 

24. How did John Brown's raid end ? 

25. Who was elected President in i860? 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

SECESSION AND CIVIL WAR 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 366-380 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 296-302. 

Home Readings. — Butterworth's In the Boyhood of Lincoln; 
Churchill's The Crisis; Hart's Source Reader, Vol. IV., pp. 117-175; 
Holmes's View of the Royal North ; McMurry's Pioneer History 
Stories, Vol. II., 170-184 (Lincoln) ; Sparks's Men Who Made the 
Nation, pp. 378-410 (Lincoln). 

415. The New President. — Abraham Lincoln is the 
most beloved character in American history. It was not 
always so. But time smooths the rough places, and now 
even in the sunny Southland, where he was once hated, 
the people love Lincoln as their true friend. He was the 
second man to reach the presidency from the humblest 
walk of life. It will be remembered that Andrew Jackson 
was the first poor boy to reach that exalted station (§ 346). 
Lincoln was born in a log cabin in Kentucky (1809). His 
father was brought up on the frontier where there were no 
schools. He was a carpenter, but he had not learned to 
read or write, and he was always very poor. He could not 
send his boy Abraham to school, for he needed his help as 
soon as the boy was big enough to work. But it is wrong 
to say that Abraham Lincoln was an uneducated man. He 
was not educated in schools as boys and girls are now. He 
educated himself. At first he used a pine board for a slate 
and pieces of charcoal for a pencil. He would walk ten 
miles or more to borrow a book, and then he would study 

398 



Secession and Civil War 399 

that book until he knew all it contained. Step by step he 
advanced until he became a surveyor and later a lawyer. 
He kept up his studies all through life. In that way he 
became a well-educated man. 

When he was elected President, he was recognized as one 
of the best lawyers in the West, one of the keenest debaters 
and most forceful public speakers in America and a strong 
man who could be trusted for two things most important 
at that time : (i) the preservation of the Union; (2) the 
prevention of slavery's expansion into Northern territory. 
When he learned that he was elected, he knew that a 
crisis was at hand, and that any words that he might utter 
would be twisted by one side or the other. So he sealed 
his lips in silence, and waited for inauguration day. 

416. Secession of South Carolina (December 20, i860). 
— South Carolina was watching and waiting after election 
day to learn who was elected. She did not repeat the 
mistake of thirty years before (§ 350), for this time the gov- 
ernor consulted with other Southern governors, and was 
encouraged to take the lead if it was found that Lincoln 
was elected. As soon as the result of the election was 
known, South Carolina called a convention which adopted 
the Ordinance of Secession, declaring that South Carolina 
had withdrawn from the Union. The state even began to 
organize as a separate nation, and made preparations for 
war. Lincoln was grieved, but he waited in silence in his 
Illinois home. 

417. Six Other Cotton States Secede. — The far-reach- 
ing influence of the invention of the cotton gin (§ 258) was 
seen at this time. Slavery was important to the whole 
South, but it was most important to the cotton-growing 
states. Thus it happened that within a few weeks after 



400 United States History for Schools 



South Carolina's secession she was joined by six other cotton 
states — Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, 
and Texas. Four others were to join later, but those seven 
cotton states were the first to secede. They sent delegates 

to a convention at Mont- 
g ornery, Alabama, 
where the Constitution 
of the Confederate 
States of America was 
adopted. 

Jefferson Davis of 
Mississippi was chosen 
President of the new 
government, and Alex- 
ander H. Stephens, Vice 
President. For them 
the " Stars and Bars " 
would be the national 
emblem instead of the 
" Stars and Stripes." 
Lincoln saw the nation 
broken. He knew there 
was a greater cause for 
it than his own elec- 
tion. Sorrowful and still silent, he watched. 

418. The Situation at Washington. — President Buchanan, 
who did not have such vigor as was shown by Jackson at 
the time of Nullification (§ 350), was in a hard position. 
He was against secession, but he sympathized with the 
South in its stand for slavery. He wanted to maintain the 
government, and when he learned that Major Anderson 
was holding Fort Sumter with a small garrison, he sent 




Jefferson Davis. 



Secession and Civil War 401 

the unarmed steamer Star of the West with men and sup- 
pHes to relieve the fort. South Carolina troops fired on 
the steamer, and prevented her landing. Two Southern 
members of Buchanan's Cabinet used their positions to 
send arms and ammunition from the North to the South. 

Some Southern men made earnest efforts to keep peace. 
Senator Crittenden from Kentucky proposed a compro- 
mise that combined features of the Clay compromises with 
the Douglas "Squatter Sovereignty" theory, as follows: 
(i) slavery was to be prohibited north of 36'' 30' (§ 325); 
(2) when territories became states they. might then de- 
cide the slavery question for themselves; (3) the Consti- 
tution was never to be amended so as to interfere with 
slavery in the slave states. Congress would not agree to 
adopt this compromise. 

Virginia, through her legislature, invited the states to 
send delegates to a peace conference at Washington City. 
The seceded states did not send delegates, and the plan 
failed. Lincoln hoped that those efforts at peace might 
succeed, but he could not say or do anything to help them. 
The time had arrived, however, for him to break his long 
silence. He must go to Washington to be inaugurated, to 
assume his great burden. 

■ 419. Lincoln's Journey to Washington. — When Lincoln 
left his home at Springfield, a crowd of his neighbors fol- 
lowed him to the train. He stood on the car platform, 
took off his hat, and looked into those faces in silence. 
His lips quivered, tears rolled down his cheeks, every man 
and boy in the crowd took off his hat and stood in the 
fast-falling rain. Lincoln, in a voice trembling and husky, 
said : " My friends : No one, not in my situation, can ap- 
preciate my feeling of sadness at this parting. To this 



402 United States History for Schools 

place, and the kindness of these people, I owe everything. 
Here I have lived a quarter of a century, and have passed 
from a young to an old man. Here my children have been 
born, and one is buried. I now leave, not knowing when 
or whether I ever may return, with a task before me greater 
than that which rested upon Washington. Without the 
assistance of that Divine Being who ever attended him, 
I cannot succeed. With that assistance, I cannot fail. 
Trusting in Him who can go with me, and remain with 
you, and be everywhere for good, let us confidently hope 
that all will yet.be well. To His care commending you, 
as I hope in your prayers you will commend me, I bid you 
an affectionate farewell." 

He passed through Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, New York, 
and Pennsylvania. Everywhere he was greeted by large 
crowds of earnest, anxious men. To all he expressed a 
strong hope for peace and a firm purpose to save the 
Union, "so far as lies in my poor power." Two of the 
finest speeches of that trip were given in Independence 
Hall, Philadelphia, where he was given a reception and 
later raised a flag over the famous old hall. In one of 
those speeches he said : " I have never had a feeling, po- 
litically, that did not spring from the sentiments embodied 
in the Declaration of Independence." In the other speech 
he said : " I am invited and called before you to participate 
in raising above Independence Hall the flag of our coun- 
try, with an additional star upon it." That additional star 
was for the state of Kansas, just admitted (January 29, 
1 861) into the Union. He hoped that star and all the 
others would remain permanently upon the flag. 

420. The Inaugural Address. — In patriotic terms Lin- 
coln had been expressing hope of peace on his journey ; 



Secession and Civil War 403 

but when it came to his inaugural address he spoke clearly 
and pointedly on the troubled questions of the hour. He 
closed with an earnest plea to the Southerners, as fol- 
lows : — 

" In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and 
not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The 
government will not assail you. You can have no conflict 
without being yourselves the aggressors. You have no 
oath registered in Heaven to destroy the government, 
while I shall have the most solemn one to ' preserve, pro- 
tect, and defend it.' 

" I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. 
We must not be enemies. Though passion may have 
strained, it must not break our bonds of affection. The 
mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield 
and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all 
over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union 
when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better 
angels of our nature." 

421. Stephen A. Douglas. — When Lincoln arose to 
make that address and to take the oath of office, he handed 
his hat toward a young newspaper man (Henry Watterson), 
but it was seized and held by Stephen A. Douglas, who 
delighted in that humble service for his old rival. Doug- 
las and his friends were greatly pleased with Lincoln's 
emphasis upon the preservation of the Union as the great 
issue. They prepared to give his administration cordial 
support. But Douglas fell ill. His last words were a 
message to his sons : " Obey the laws and uphold the 
Constitution." 

422. William H. Seward. — When Lincoln was nomi- 
nated his strongest rival in the convention was William H. 



404 United States History for Schools 



Seward, the New York leader. For the good he might do 
his country he accepted the chief place in Lincoln's Cabi- 
net, as Secretary of State. During eight eventful years 
he gave his fine talents to service in that position. Lin- 
coln's private secretary (John 
Hay), who himself many years 
later held the office of Secre- 
tary of State, in speaking of 
Lincoln and Seward, when 
both were dead, said: " Their 
names shall shine, twin-stars 
in the Heaven of Fame." 

423. Hesitation. — After 
Lincoln was inaugurated, the 
North hesitated. There was 
a general feeling that war 
ought to be avoided. A few 
states bought arms and filled 
up their regiments of militia, 
but most of them waited for 
the new President to settle 
the troubles and bring the se- 
ceded states back into the 
Union. The South was much 
more active. Southern men 
who were officers in the 
United States army resigned 
their positions and went back to their home states. Ofificers 
in civil positions, including senators and congressmen, did 
the same. Troops were gathered and armed. They were 
making ready for a conflict. Still there was hesitation in 
the South, for some of the leaders did not believe in seces- 




From tlie statue by Richard E. Brooks at 
Seattle, Washington. 



William H. Seward. 



Secession and Civil War 



405 



sion. Even Vice President Stephens of the Confederate 
States did not believe there was sufficient ground for seces- 
sion at that time. Though the South had made prepara- 
tions for war and had driven away the steamer Star of the 
West when attempting to relieve Fort Sumter, there was a 
sullen hesitation about striking the first blow. Lincoln had 




<T Sumter Bombarded. 



said that the United States government certainly would 
not strike that blow ( § 420). Every citizen felt the gloomy 
strain during that time of hesitation. 

424. Firing on Fort Sumter. — Major Anderson and his 
brave men, eighty-five in all, had held Fort Sumter while 
watched by seven thousand South Carolina troops at 
Charleston and elsewhere around the harbor. The com- 
mander sent a message that he could not hold on much 



4o6 United States History for Schools 

longer without supplies. President Lincoln ordered a 
fleet to sail for Sumter with men and food. When Presi- 
dent Davis heard of that order, he commanded General 
Beauregard at Charleston to demand the surrender of the 
fort. Major Anderson refused to surrender. At day- 
break, April 12, 1 86 1, shots were fired from shore. They 
were answered from the fort. The cannonade continued 
for thirty-four hours. Hot shot from shore set the wood- 
work in the fort on fire. Danger increased every moment. 
Food was nearly gone. Before relief came, Major Ander- 
son took down the flag, embarked his small garrison, and 
sailed for New York. No one was killed on either side, 
but the Civil War had begun. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. How did Lincoln become an educated man ? 

2. Why was he silent after election day ? 

3- How did South Carolina's action at the time of secession differ 
from her action at the time of Nullification ? 

4. Why did the cotton states lead in secession? 

5. Show how President Buchanan's position was a hard one. 

6. Describe Lincoln's journey to Washington. 

7. What did he say to the Southerners in his Inaugural Address? 

8. What did Douglas do when Lincoln became President? 

9. What position did William H. Seward occupy? 

10. Why did the North hesitate after Lincoln was inaugurated ? 

11. Why did Major Anderson leave Fort Sumter? 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

FIRST YEAR OF THE CIVIL WAR 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 380-396 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 303-312. 

Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. IV., pp. 177-218; 
McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. H., pp. 185-201 ; Page's 
Two Little Confederates ; Soley's Sailor Boys of '61 ; Trowbridge's 
Drummer Boy. 

425. The Two Sides. — There are three things that 
every American should grip firmly when thinking seriously 
of the Civil War. These are: (i) there were great leaders 
and brave men on both sides ; (2) the right of a state to 
secede was not a one-sided question; (3) slavery was the 
real cause of the war. 

The American Civil War was the greatest war of the 
kind in world history. If all the great leaders and all the 
brave men had been on one side, the war would have ended 
in a single great battle. It is, therefore, clear that there 
were great leaders and brave men on both sides. Seward's 
family papers have revealed the fact that it was at first 
expected to have Robert E. Lee as Commander in Chief of 
the Union army under President Lincoln. His ability was 
recognized at the beginning by both sides. 

One difficulty in ratifying the Constitution (§ 251) was 
the fear held by many that the states were to lose too 
much power. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 
(§ 275) reasserted the rights of states. The Hartford 
Convention (§ 308) was an effort on the part of New Eng- 

407 



4o8 United States History for Schools 

land to seek a way out of the Union on account of the ob- 
jectionable War of 1 812. Jackson and Webster by firmness 
and eloquence postponed secession(§§ 349-350) at the time 
of South Carohna's attempt at nullification. Robert E. 
Lee graduated from the United States Military Academy 
in 1829. One of the books used in that government school 
taught that a state could peacefully secede from the Union. 
Thus history shows there were two sides to that question 
before the war. 

Secession was the cause of the war, but the cause of se- 
cession was slavery. It is therefore best to think of slav- 
ery as the real cause of the war. When the war was ended, 
the idea of secession and the institution of slavery were 
both uprooted. 

426. The Call to Arms. — It was Sunday afternoon 
(April 14) when Major Anderson left the battered Fort 
Sumter. The next morning President Lincoln issued a call 
for 75,000 volunteers. The spirit of hesitation vanished in 
the North. Flags were flung to the breeze, bands played 
patriotic music, and men and boys rushed from farms, shops, 
factories, and schools. Political parties were forgotten for 
the hour. Everybody was determined that the Union 
should be preserved. The North believed that the conflict 
would be short and decisive. The first call for volunteers 
was for only three months' service. How little was then 
realized the kind of war that had come upon the country ! 

President Davis answered President Lincoln's proclama- 
tion by issuing a similar one calling for volunteers in the 
South. His call was answered in the same enthusiastic 
way. Both sides believed that they were right. 

427. Secession of Four More States. — In sending out 
his call for troops President Lincoln addressed it to all 



First Year of the Civil War 409 

states that had not seceded. There were eight slave 
states still in the Union, hoping that their cotton-growing 
brothers would come back before it was too late. Four 
of these states — Arkansas, North Carohna, Virginia, and 
Tennessee — refused to obey Lincoln's call for troops, and 
with apparent reluctance seceded from the Union. That 
completed the Hst of eleven states in the Confederate 
States of America. The capital was removed from Mont- 
gomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia. 

428. The Border States. — The four slave states — Dela- 
ware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri — that refused 
to secede were known as "border states." To these were 
added a new state. The western counties of Virginia re- 
volted against secession and set up a separate government. 
Those counties were received into the Union (1863) as the 
state of West Virginia. There was great sorrow of every 
kind in those "border states." Not only were battles 
fought there, not only were lives and property destroyed, 
but there were suffering and pain that can only be seen in 
civil wars. Brothers took opposite sides, and sometimes 
fathers were against their sons. It was bad enough to 
shoot at any fellow-creature, but what additional agony 
must the man have felt who pressed the trigger knowing 
that he might be killing his own father, his own brother, 
or the son he had reared to young manhood ! And, what 
is seldom considered, how must the hearts at home have 
bled, the hearts of mothers, sisters, daughters, as they 
prayed and waited for the gloomy news of battles with 
their long lists of dead and wounded ! There was one 
kind of courage on the battlefield ; there was another kind 
of bravery in the home. The bullets and the swords that 
crushed hearts in battle tore and wounded many other 
hearts, though miles away. 



41 o United States History for Schools 

429. Each Side had Some Advantage. — If the war had 

been short, the South would have had the greater chance 
of winning. Those states had the advantage of first prep- 
aration. They had gathered men and arms while the 
North was hesitating. They knew the ground of the 
South, and they were desperately in earnest. But in a 
long contest the South would find that it had no manufac- 
tories in which to make arms, ammunition, clothing, and 
other supplies. They had devoted most of their energy 
to agriculture. There were few sailors or shipowners in 
the South. 

On the other hand, the North had many sailors, and 
soon had a strong navy. The Southern ports could be 
closed. The North had many factories and much more 
wealth than the South. There were also many more men 
and boys for soldiers in the North. 

430. War Policy of Congress. — After President Lincoln 
had called for his army, he next called for Congress to 
assemble in special session on July 4. Congress found 
the treasury nearly empty. The army and civil service 
were badly crippled by the resignations of Southern offi- 
cers. Soon after Congress began its large task news 
came of the first disastrous battle. It was then evident 
that the war was not going to be a short conflict. Con- 
gress set to work with earnest zeal on a comprehensive 
plan. The tariff was heavily increased for two reasons : 
(i) to raise money for the war; (2) to stimulate manufac- 
turing and business which would create capital, and allow 
the government to levy more taxes. Railroads were given 
grants of land and money to encourage more building and 
more business. The Homestead Law was passed, and agri- 
cultural colleges were given lands and money to encour- 



First Year of the Civil War 411 



age agriculture and more rapid settlement of the West. A 
foreign loan was negotiated, and paper money was issued. 
The army and navy were provided for, and in every way 
Congress sought to build up and strengthen the nation to 
meet the great strain that was coming upon it. 

431. First Battle of Bull Run (July 21, 1861). — The 
Southern army was shouting, " On to Washington ! " and 
the Northern army answered with " On to Richmond ! " 
General Beauregard posted the Confederate army of 30,000 
men at Manassas Junction, near a small creek called Bull 
Run. From that point he could defend Richmond or 
attack Washington. General McDowell moved forward 
with the Union army, about as large as that of the Con- 
federates. Lincoln said that one army was about as 
"green" as the other. It looked for a time like a Union 
victory, but as the Confederates were falling back, they 
received reenforcements, and soon the Union army was 
retreating in a rout toward Washington. It was in this 
first battle that the Confederate General Thomas J. Jack- 
son held his ground so stubbornly with bayonet charges 
that one of his fellow-ofhcers shouted : " See Jackson 
standing Hke a stone wall ! " From that time he was affec- 
tionately known as " Stonewall " Jackson. 

432. Courage out of Defeat. — McDowell's defeated army 
rushed into Washington City, but the government was 
not stampeded. Congress voted to raise 500,000 men for 
new armies and $500,000,000 to pay expenses of the war. 
Both North and South decided to fortify their capital 
cities, and to drill their armies. General George B. Mc- 
Clellan had driven the Confederates out of West Virginia, 
and he was next given the task of drilling the Union 
troops. 



412 United States History for Schools 

433. The Fourfold War Plan. — Realizing that the war 
was to be longer than had been at first expected, the 
government adopted a fourfold plan: (i) to close the 
Southern ports by strict blockade to prevent the South 
from sending its cotton to market and getting war ma- 
terials in exchange ; (2) to capture Richmond, the Confed- 
erate capital; (3) to open the Mississippi, the Tennessee, 
and Cumberland rivers, which were held by Confederate 
forts; (4) to break the power of the Confederacy by 
marching through its lands from the west to the Atlantic 
and then north to Virginia. 

The fourfold plan was accomplished, but it required for 
its completion three more years of war, of destruction, 
bloodshed, and devastation. 

434. Case of the British Steamer Trent. — The Confeder- 
ates greatly desired foreign help to open their ports and 
to exchange cotton for supplies. The Confederate govern- 
ment delegated J. M. Mason as agent or commissioner to 
Great Britain and John Slidell to France. These two men 
evaded the blockade at Charleston and went to Havana. 
There they took passage in the British steamer Trait for 
England. Captain Charles Wilkes, in the United States 
man-of-war San Jacinto, overhauled the Tirnt, made prison- 
ers of Mason and Slidell, and carried them to Boston. The 
North cheered loudly this capture of Confederate agents ; 
but Lincoln knew that we had violated the British flag, and 
in his characteristic way he " guessed we had a pair of 
white elephants on our hands." 

Great Britain protested bitterly, and it looked as though 
the North might have another war, but Lincoln and his 
Secretary of State, Seward, settled the trouble by releasing 
Mason and Slidell and by assuring the British government 



First Year of the Civil War 413 

that Captain Wilkes had not been authorized to search the 
British steamer. During the correspondence it was 
pointed out that the United States had always opposed the 
" right of search," and we were pleased to see that Great 
Britain had come to the same view. In vain had we 
fought the War of 181 2 over this issue (§§ 296-31 1), which 
was now settled as an incident during war between other 
parties. 

435. Attitude of England and France. — Great Britain's 
sharp protest in the " Trent affair " angered the North. 
But that was not the only cause of anger. Soon after the 
firing on Fort Sumter by the Confederates both England 
and France gave to the South the " rights of war " by 
recognizing the Confederate States as " belligerents " and 
proclaiming their own neutrality. They then watched for 
a good excuse to go one step farther and to recognize the 
" independence " of the Confederate States. Each of the 
nations had reasons for this attitude of friendliness to the 
South. Both thought the chance of foreign trade would 
be better if there were two weak governments in the place of 
a single strong one in the United States. 

England depended largely on Southern cotton. In the 
year before the war (i860) she imported American cotton 
to the value of $200,000,000. There were 4,000,000 Eng- 
lish workmen dependent more or less on that supply of 
cotton to keep the factories going. These were reasons 
for the British government wishing the Confederates suc- 
cess in breaking the blockade. But those English working- 
men and women looked beyond business and commerce, 
and they suffered in silence the loss of their own work, 
since they realized that slavery was at the bottom of the 
war in America. ? 



414 United States History for Schools 




First Year of the Civil War 415 

France had much meaner reasons for her attitude. Em- 
peror Napoleon III. had designs on Mexico. He sent a 
French army there to destroy the republic, and put Max- 
imilian, an Austrian prince, on the throne as Emperor of 
Mexico. He thought he could afford to violate the Mon- 
roe Doctrine (§ 331) while the United States was in the 
midst of civil war, and if the Confederacy was successful 
he did not expect that the two American governments 
would unite to enforce that doctrine. In the end he and 
the Austrian prince were the sufferers. 

436. Duel between the Monitor and Merrimac. — The 
Confederates were ever anxious to break the blockade. 
But the North kept building more boats and tightening the 
grip on the harbors of the South. The Confederates took 
the old jlfeirimac, a war vessel left at the Norfolk Navy 
Yard, and covered her completely with iron. Her name 
was changed to the Virginia, but the older name is oftener 
used. Off the mouth of the James River lay a fleet of 
wooden warships of the Union navy, keeping up the block- 
ade. Captain Buchanan with the ironclad destroyed two 
wooden ships, and the next morning (March 9, 1862) sailed 
out to complete his work. He was surprised to encounter 
a queer craft that was described as " a cheese box on a 
raft." 

The United States government had given an order to 
the inventor, John Ericsson (§ 366), to make quickly an 
iron vessel from designs unlike any known before. Its 
principal feature was a revolving turret on a low-setting 
hull of iron. This was the " cheese box." It was finished 
just in time, and in fact had been desperately hurried as 
spies kept watch of the Confederates' work on the Merri- 
mac. The new arrival, bearing the name 3Ionitor, was in 



41 6 United States History for Schools 

command of Lieutenant Worden,and had taken position to 
defend the remaining wooden vessels of the Union fleet. 
When the Merrimac and Mo7iitor met there resulted one 
of the strangest duels in history. Neither could destroy 
nor greatly harm the other. For three hours the fight 
continued, and then the Merrimac withdrew. The Con- 
federates claimed that the battle was a " draw," but they 
acknowledged that the advantage was with the Monitor. 

Those boats were famous on account of the one fight. 
Neither appeared in another battle. The Confederates 
destroyed the Merrimac when the Union troops captured 
Norfolk, and the Monitor was lost with her crew in a storm 
off Cape Hatteras. It has been claimed that the Monitor 
saved the Union, If the Merrimac had not been checked, 
she could have lifted the blockade and then by steaming 
up the Potomac she could have destroyed the capital. 
Foreign aid would have been within reach of the Con- 
federates. Ericsson's screw propeller had changed the 
navies of the world. His Monitor wrought an equal change. 
Wooden navies were out of date after that famous battle. 
The United States at once built more Monitors and war- 
ships of iron. 

437. Conquest of Missouri. — The Confederates held 
the Mississippi River, and on the west of the river were 
the three seceded states of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. 
They won the battle of Wilson Creek in which the 
Union leader. General Nathaniel Lyon, was killed, but later 
the Confederates were driven south into Arkansas, and 
Missouri was held on the Union side. 

438. Strategic Value of the Mississippi. — In the Revo- 
lution we saw how the British desired to control the Hud- 
son River (§191) so as to separate New England from the 



First Year of the Civil War 417 

Southern colonies and to open a way of attack from 
Canada. Even on a larger scale was the control of the 
Mississippi River important in the Civil War. If the 
Union controlled the river, Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas 
would be separated from the eight other Confederate 
States. Such control would also permit Union troops and 
supplies to be moved up the river for attacks on the 
three Western states and on the states east of the river. 
Confederate supplies from the West could then be captured 
or destroyed. 

The Confederate States realized the great danger of 
losing control of the river, and had built many forts and ob- 
structions along the banks of the great water highway. 
Near New Orleans they had stretched strong chains fas- 
tened to old sunken vessels, and had assembled gunboats 
to fight and fire rafts to send in among the Union warships 
if they tried to pass the forts and the chains. They built 
a strong fort at Vicksburg, where a bend in the river gave 
their cannons a clear sweep up and down the stream. The 
Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, flowing into the Ohio 
near its union with the Mississippi, were natural gateways 
into Kentucky and Tennessee. The Confederates built 
Fort Henry and Fort Donelson to guard those gateways, 
and they hoped to get full control of the border state of 
Kentucky. 

Aside from the military operations, the control of the 
Mississippi was important to the Union as an outlet for 
farm products. Western agriculture was being encouraged 
(§430), and most certainly a sure and cheap way to market 
was important to the farmers who were opening the Western 
prairies to settlement. 

439. Victories won by Grant and Foote. — To capture 



41 8 United States History for Schools 

those gateways of the Tennessee and the Cumberland a flo- 
tilla of gunboats was placed under command of Commodore 
Foote, and an army was led by General Grant. . By work- 
ing together they captured Fort Henry (February 6, 1862), 
and ten days later Fort Donelson also surrendered with 
15,000 prisoners. When General Buckner, in command 
of Fort Donelson, after a hard battle, asked Grant what 
terms of surrender would be given, he received a brief 
note from Grant demanding " unconditional and immediate 
surrender." This important victory delighted the North. 
The people saw that " unconditional surrender " fitted 
Grant's initials, so he was hailed as "Unconditional Sur- 
render " Grant. 

440. Shiloh. — The importance of those gateways was 
speedily seen. Columbus and Nashville fell into the 
hands of the Union army. The Confederates sought to 
stop the Union advance. General Albert Sidney Johnston 
took his stand with 40,000 Confederate troops at Corinth, 
an important railway center. Generals Grant and Sherman, 
with 33,000 men, paused at Pittsburg Landing, four miles 
from Corinth, and there awaited General Buell, who was 
hastening from Nashville with 27,000 men. General 
Johnston knew of these plans, and before Buell had arrived 
he fell upon Grant's army at break of day (Sunday, April 
6, 1862). It was a surprise for the Union troops. "To- 
night," shouted Johnston, "we will water our horses in the 
Tennessee." It was a terrific battle. Grant's army was 
driven back a mile and a half toward the river by nightfall. 
Before the next dawn Buell arrived. With the fresh help 
Grant drove the Confederates from the field; and the battle, 
called sometimes Shiloh (after a church near the battle- 
ground) and sometimes Pittsburg Landing, was a Union 



First Year of the Civil War 419 

victory. On the field lay 25,000 men and boys, dead and 
wounded. Among the dead was the gallant Confederate 
leader, General Johnston. He was stamped a hero by his 
last act as much as by any deed of his eventful career. 
When suffering from a wound he sent his surgeon to 
attend some Union prisoners who were also wounded. 
While the surgeon was gone on that errand of mercy, 
Johnston bled to death. Grant also showed a fine spirit, 
for he modestly said : " I am indebted to General Sherman 
for that battle." 

441. Island Number 10. — After the victories at Forts 
Henry and Donelson, Commodore Foote had taken his gun- 
boats around into the Mississippi River, and after a month 
of hard fighting he received the surrender of the Confeder- 
ates defending the important fortification on Island Number 
10, thus opening the river to the Union side for three hun- 
dred miles, or as far as Vicksburg. This victory (April 8), 
coming one day after the victory of Shiloh, gave additional 
encouragement to the North. 

442. End of the First Year of the War. — The war had 
begun by the firing on Fort Sumter (April 12, 1861), and 
at the end of the first year it was seen that Congress and 
the governments of both sides had discovered that a 
stubborn conflict of unknown length had come upon the 
country. Preparations were made accordingly. The 
North undertook to blockade all Southern harbors, and the 
South was eager to*break that blockade and to secure out- 
side help. England and France showed sympathy with the 
South. France invaded Mexico ; and England, by her pro- 
test over the Trent affair, angered the Union, but she 
also at the same time abandoned any further idea of the 
"right of search." The Confederates had won the battle 



420 United States History for Schools 

of Bull Run in the East, but they lost heavily in the battles 
of the West. The Monitor had done its part toward sav- 
ing the Union. As the second year began, armies were in 
the field for more severe fighting in the East and West. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Show how the Civil War was not one-sided. 

2. How did the North and South respond to the first calls to arms? 

3. What four states seceded to join the seven cotton states ? 

4. What were the '• border states " ? 

5. What was the war policy adopted by Congress ? 

6. Describe the result of the first battle of Bull Run. 

7. What was the North's fourfold plan of war ? 

8. Give the results of the steamer Trent affair. 

9. What was the attitude of England? and of France ? 

10. Describe the battle between the Monitor and the Mcrrimac. 

1 1 . Why was the control of the Mississippi River of great value ? 

12. How did the general earn the name of "Unconditional Surren- 
der " Grant ? 

13. After the bloody battle of Shiloh, how did General Albert 
Sidney Johnston die ? and what did General Grant say ? 



CHAPTER XXXV 
SECOND YEAR OF THE CIVIL WAR 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 399-409 ; Hart's Source 
Book. pp. 313-320. 

Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. IV., pp. 219-282; 
Hentley's With Lee in Virginia ; Trowbridge's Three Scouts ; Whittier's 
Barbara Frietchie. 

443. Capture of New Orleans (April 25, 1862). — Knowing 
that the Confederates had defended New Orleans with 
forts, chains, fire rafts (§ 438), and with a fleet of gunboats, 
including an ironclad like the Merriviac, the Federal gov- 
ernment made great preparations to capture the city. 
Captain David G. Farragut was sent with a fleet of wooden 
warships; described as the " largest fleet that ever sailed 
under the American flag." With him was Commander 
Porter with a fleet of mortar boats, so named because of 
their short, wide-mouthed cannons that shot large explosive 
shells. With Farragut there was also Lieutenant George 
Dewey, destined to become a hero in another war. On Ship 
Island, near the mouth of the Mississippi, were 15,000 
troops under General Butler. These were to hold the city 
if the fleets should conquer it. 

For six days and nights the cannons roared from the 
forts and from the ships. At last Farragut risked the 
chains and fire rafts, and ran his fleet past the forts at night. 
After hard fighting he conquered the Confederate fleet, and 
entered the city, which he found ablaze along the river. 
The Confederates burned their ships and stores of cotton 

421 



422 United States History for Schools 



and other property to prevent their capture by the ap- 
proaching Union fx)rces. 

The great river was then in possession of the Federals, 
v^^ith the exception of two strongly fortified positions on 
high bluffs at Port Hudson and Vicksburg. The navy 

would have to wait 

^^ ~ "■"" ~^ ^ for help from the 

army on the land 
side before those 
places could be 
taken. For his vic- 
tory at New Or- 
leans Captain Far- 
ragut was raised to 
the rank of Rear 
Admiral. 

444. The Confed- 
erates race for 
Kentucky. — Bat- 
tles were raging in 
the East between 
the capital cities of 
the two contending 
sections, but that 
fact did not prevent both sides paying attention to the trend 
of events in the West. After the battle of Shiloh (§ 440) 
Grant continued in and around the railroad center at Corinth, 
northern Mississippi. His presence there was a serious 
menace to the South. The loss of New Orleans and the 
river gateways was also serious. Something must be done 
to recover those losses. Kentucky was a slave state, but 
had not seceded. General Bragg was sent with a Confed- 




Ulysses S. Grant. 



Second Year of the Civil War 423 

erate army and plenty of extra muskets to arouse the Ken- 
tuckians to a fighting spirit for the Confederacy. Grant 
sent after him a Union army under General Buell. It was 
a race through Tennessee and Kentucky for Louisville. 
The race was won by Buell, who defeated Bragg at Perry- 
ville (October 8, 1862). Bragg retreated with his extra 
muskets into Tennessee. Grant had been kept busy with 
Confederate armies around Corinth. He sent General 
Rosecrans with an army of 40,000 to attack Bragg, who 
also had 40,000 men. The battle of Murfreesboro (Decem- 
ber 31, 1862) was the result. There continued three days 
of hard fighting. The losses were frightful, — about 14,000 
on the Union side and 11,000 on the Confederate side. 
The Confederates retreated, and it seemed as if they not 
only had lost the race for Kentucky, but had lost control of 
Tennessee as well. Generals Grant and Sherman began a 
campaign against Vicksburg. 

445. The Peninsular Campaign. — While the Confeder- 
ates suffered such severe defeats in the West, they won bril- 
liant victories in the East. The land between the James and 
the York rivers is called a peninsula, and as General 
McClellan started for Richmond from that direction, his 
battles are called the " Peninsular Campaign." Two things 
complicated and hindered the campaign. One, the weather, 
could not be guarded against; the other, danger of attack 
on Washington, was foreseen and was guarded against. 
General McDowell was placed between McClellan and 
Washington to protect the capital from direct attack. 
Generals Banks and Fremont were given armies in the 
Shenandoah Valley to guard that " back door to Washing- 
ton." 

General McClellan started with an army of 100,000 men. 



4^4 United States History for Schools 



He easily made headway to the Chickahoininy, where he 
encountered an unexpected enemy in the weather. Part 
only of his army had crossed that river when it overflowed 
its banks. The soldiers were wading in mud and water, 
using time and strength building boats and bridges. At 
Fair Oaks or Seven Pines his army defeated the Confeder- 
ates under General Joseph E. Johnston (May 31, 1862). 

In that battle General 
Johnston was wounded, 
and General Robert E. 
Lee took chief command 
of the Confederate armies. 
The loss of time from bad 
weather had been serious 
to the Union army, and 
then the other hindrance 
appeared. 

446. Washington in 
Danger. — General 
" Stonewall " Jackson 
made a brilliant dash 
through the Shenandoah 
Valley. He defeated 
both Generals Bank and 
Fremont, which of course startled the government at Wash- 
ington, and General McDowell was called upon to defend 
the capital at the very time that McClellan expected his 
help near Richmond. That was exactly what Jackson had 
planned, for in three weeks he had dashed back with his 
army to the defense of Richmond. 

To continue the alarm at Washington, and keep McDow- 
ell's army back, General Lee sent his cavalry leader, Gen- 




Second Year of the Civil War 425 

eral Stuart, on a dashing raid. Stuart completely circled 
McClellan's army. His troopers tore up railroad tracks, 
burned supplies, and spread alarm in all directions. 

447. Escape of Richmond. — Notwithstanding the hin- 
drances, McClellan's army got within sight of Richmond, 
the Confederate capital. The contests there between Lee 
and McClellan are called the "Seven Days' Battles." 
The loss of life was enormous, more than fifteen thousand 
on each side. The Union army withdrew, and Richmond 
was safe. 

The Union forces were reorganized. President Lincoln 
called for more volunteers, and there arose the shout, " We 
are coming, Father Abraham, three hundred thousand 
more." McClellan. retained the command of the Army of 
the Potomac, and General Pope was given command of the 
new Army of Virginia, made up of the forces under Mc- 
Dowell, Banks, and Fremont. 

General Pope with his new army was directed to make 
another effort to capture Richmond. At Manassas Junc- 
tion, where the first battle of the war (§431) had been 
fought, he met the Confederates, and the " Second Battle 
of Bull Run" resulted (August 31, 1862). Like the other 
battle at the same place, it was a complete victory for the 
Confederates. Pope retreated with his broken army to 
Washington, where he resigned his command. 

448. The Battle of Antietam (September 17, 1862). — 
General Lee ordered Bragg to make his dash toward Louis- 
ville (§ 444), while he would also try to carry the war into 
the North. He crossed the Potomac, while his men sang : 
" Maryland, my Maryland." He hoped the Marylanders 
would rise to defend the Confederacy, as Bragg hoped the 
Kentuckians would do. Both were disappointed on that 



426 United States History for Schools 

score. General McClellan moved north along the Potomac, 
and the two armies came together with a crash at Antietam 
Creek. Great rows of dead in blue and in gray lay on the 
field. Most critics call it a drawn battle, but Lee retreated 
across the Potomac into Virginia, and the Federals claimed 
the victory. McClellan was blamed for allowing Lee to 
escape, and the command of his army was given to General 
Burnside. But Antietam had a still more important result, 
as will now be seen. 

449. Lincoln and Slavery. — Abraham Lincoln hated the 
institution of slavery. But no man was more keenly con- 
scientious. He was always earnest, also, in his efforts to be 
consistent. He had said in his Inaugural Address that he 
would not interfere with slavery in the slave states. As 
the war developed, however, the question of slavery became 
troublesome for new reasons. General Fremont brought 
trouble to the President by himself declaring free the 
slaves in Missouri. Though Congress was attempting to 
devise ways to free the slaves, Fremont's action was too 
soon, and was not authorized. Slaves fled to the Union 
armies. General Butler called them " contraband of war," 
and used them as laborers. The Confederates used the 
slaves to build forts, to perform other labor for the army 
and to work on farms for the folks at home. In a way the 
slaves in the South were working against the Union. 

Lincoln saw all this, and early in 1862 decided to declare 
the slaves to be free. He consulted with the Cabinet officers, 
and they wisely pointed out the danger of such a step at 
that time. Washington was in danger. The Union troops 
were meeting defeats. Freeing the slaves, or trying to do 
so, would be thought a cry of distress on the part of the 
government. The President ought to wait for a victory 



Second Year of the Civil War 427 

that would justify such a move. He put the proclamation 
away, and waited. 

450. The Proclamation of Emancipation. — The North 
was clamoring for the President to liberate the slaves. 
He would gladly do so at the right time. He had urged 
plans for peaceful emancipation. But he steadfastly de- 
clared that his first duty was to save the Union. While 
the proclamation was in his desk, he wrote his famous letter 
to Horace Greeley, saying that he would save the Union 
before any consideration of slavery. It is said that two 
delegations of Quakers called on him. To one of the 
young " progressive " Quakers he gave an answer like 
that to Greeley. Then came a pair — a dear old Quaker 
and his wife. "The Lord had moved" them to talk with 
the President about slaves that ought to be freed. He 
took those old folks to his desk, and showed them his pre- 
cious paper, and explained why he waited. They went 
home, and told their neighbors all would be well soon. 

Antietam was called a victory (§448). That was the 
President's chance. He published (September 23) his 
notice that in one hundred days " all persons held as 
slaves in any State, the people whereof shall then be 
in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thence- 
forward, and forever free." The one hundred days ended 
on New Year's Day, 1863, when the formal Proclamation 
of Emancipation was issued. 

451. Battle of Fredericksburg (December 13, 1862). 
— On getting command of the Army of the Potomac, 
General Burnside started to capture Richmond. He 
found the Confederates holding a strongly fortified position 
in the hills around Fredericksburg. He charged the 
fortifications, but was driven back after a terrible loss of 



4^8 United States History for Schools 

men. He retreated toward Washington, and the command 
of his army was given to General Hooker, known as 
'" Fighting Joe." 

452. Another Adams at London. — No single family has 
made such an impress upon American history as the 
Adams family of Massachusetts. John Adams was the 
first United States Minister to Great Britain at the close 
of the Revolution (§ 231). His famous son, John Quincy 
Adams, held the same position at the end of the War of 
1812 (§311). The remarkable sequence did not end 
there. During the entire period of the Civil War and Re- 
construction ( 1 861-1868) the United States Minister to 
Great Britain was Charles Francis Adams, son of John 
Quincy Adams. The British and French governments 
sympathized with the Confederacy (§435). It was a 
most serious time for the American Minister at London ; 
but Charles Francis Adams had inherited a generous 
supply of the ability, the honesty, the frankness, and the 
downright courage of his illustrious family. Again and 
again he made bold and emphatic protests. to the British 
government against the practice of building and outfitting 
Confederate cruisers in British ports. Those protests 
finally brought Great Britain to a reluctant performance 
of her duty in stopping the further building of cruisers, 
and they also laid the foundation for a large and success- 
ful claim for damages. 

453. Confederate Cruisers and Blockade Runners. — 
The most famous of the Confederate cruisers was the 
Alabama, which was built in Liverpool and slipped away 
to sea, though Minister Adams had steadily protested. 
The Florida was once the Oreto. She was purchased, 
her name changed, and she sailed, ready for war, from 



Second Year of the Civil War 429 

a British port. The SJicnandoaJi had been known as the 
Sea King. She captured, burned, or destroyed a large 
number of American whalers and merchantmen in the 
Pacific Ocean. California, Oregon, and Washington terri- 
tory ports were in constant dread of a visit from that 
prowler, flying the " Stars and Bars." These and other 
cruisers did not seek battle with Union warships, but 
they preyed upon commerce, capturing two hundred and 
sixty vessels valued at $20,000,000. Before they were 
blockaded or destroyed, they had become such a terror 
that most of the Union merchant ships were sold to 
foreign companies to get the benefit and protection of 
neutral flags. 

The Confederate government issued letters of marque 
to privateers to capture Union vessels. At first the Union 
government called them pirates, and shot the captured 
crews. President Davis stopped that by threatening to 
shoot an equal number of Union prisoners. After that 
the captured privateers were treated as prisoners of 
war. 

The small Union navy had been rapidly increased by 
the building and buying of all sorts of ships. The 
blockade of Southern ports was made more and more 
effective. To evade these grim policemen of the sea, the 
Confederates used the swiftest vessels they could obtain as 
" blockade runners." These would slip out of some 
Southern port at night or in a fog, and dash for a friendly 
port in the West Indies with a load of cotton. Then they 
would watch for a chance to steal back into a Southern 
port with a return load of supplies. The profits were 
great enough to justify the risk. Two such trips would 
pay for the ship. Such trade became more dangerous as 



430 United States History for Schools 

the Union navy increased. During the war the Union 
fleets captured about fifteen hundred Confederate ships. 

454. End of the Second Year of the War. — During the 
second year of the war terrible battles had been fought, 
many thousands of men had been killed on each side, 
hundreds and thousands of homes had been plunged into 
grief over "sad news from the front" ; but there was no 
evidence that the end was near. New Orleans had been 
captured, and the Union armies in the West were success- 
ful. The center of the war was around the two capital 
cities. The Union armies had failed to capture Richmond, 
but they had managed to protect Washington. Lee had 
failed in his effort to invade the North. 

But the character of the war had been changed. It had 
started as a war to divide the nation by secession, and all 
the Federal force was arrayed to " preserve the Union." 
President Lincoln's Proclamation of Emancipation stamped 
it as really a war for and against slavery. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

r. When Farragut captured New Orleans, how much of the Missis- 
sippi River remained in tlie control of the Confederates.'' 

2. Who won the race for Kentucky? 

3. How did the weather hinder McClellan's Peninsular Campaign.? 

4. How did Richmond escape capture? 

5. Who won the battle of Antietam? 

6. What made Lincoln decide to free the slaves? 

7. When was the Proclamation of Emancipation issued? 

8. What was the result of the battle of Fredericksburg? 

9. How did Charles Francis Adams serve his country at this time? 

10. How did the Confederate States exercise sea power? 

11. How was the character of the war changed? 



CHAPTER XXXVI 



THIRD YEAR OF THE CIVIL WAR 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 410-414 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 320-329. 

Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. IV., pp. 283-341; 
Harte's John Burns of Gettysburg ; Page's In Ole Virginia ; Trow- 
bridge's Cudjo's Cave. 

455. Battle of Chancellorsville (May 2-3, 1863). — Gen- 
eral Hooker, with the Army of the Potomac, attempted to 
capture Richmond by marching around Lee's army 
intrenched , at Fredericksburg. 
Lee's army was smaller, but he 
took one of his desperate chances 
by dividing and sending part of 
it around for a flank attack on 
Hooker's army. The result was 
the battle of Chancellorsville. 
Only part of Hooker's large 
army was engaged, but that part 
was badly beaten. Hooker was 
stunned by a cannon-ball, and for 
several hours was unable to give 
orders. His army retreated, and 
Chancellorsville was a Confed- 
erate victory. But it was an ex- 
pensive victory. Lee said he had lost his ," right arm," 
for " Stonewall " Jackson was killed. By a tragic mistake 
he had been shot by some of his own men. 

431 




Thomas J. Jackson. 



432 United States History for Schools 

456. Gettysburg. — The Confederates were elated over 
the victories of Fredericksburg (§ 451) and Chancellorsville. 
Lee was urged to carry the war into the North and compel 
the granting of a peace satisfactory to the South. With 
an army of 70,000 men he crossed the Potomac, marched 
across Maryland into Pennsylvania, and came in sight of 
Harrisburg, capital city of the great " Keystone State." 
There he was overtaken by the Army of the Potomac, 
90,000 strong, under General George G. Meade, who had 
succeeded General Hooker. Lee brought his army back 
and faced Meade at the village of Gettysburg, where was 
fought one of the greatest battles of the world on the first 
three days of July, 1863. 

The Confederates took possession of Seminary Ridge 
and the Federals of Cemetery Ridge. Between the two 
was a valley about one mile wide. Across this valley the 
cannon duel raged. On the first and second days the Con- 
federates gained ground. On the third day the Federals 
ceased firing to let the cannons cool. Lee thought he had 
"silenced" the enemy's guns, and he ordered Pickett's 
division of infantry to charge across the valley and pierce 
the Union Hues. As 15,000 men marched out of the 
forest of oaks into the open valley, the Union cannons 
opened fire. Great holes were torn in the ranks. As 
they drew nearer Union rifles mowed them down. They 
closed ranks and marched on as if the " boys in gray " 
were on dress parade. They charged the ridge, and the ad- 
vance had reached a hand-to-hand fight with the Union 
troops when " retreat " was sounded, leaving the valley 
strewn with dead. 

The point reached by that charge is marked by a 
monument in the form of a laro-e bronze book on which 



Third Year of the Civil War 43J 

is inscribed : " High-water Mark of the Rebellion"; on one 
leaf are the names of the Confederate leaders of the charge, 
and on the other page those of the leaders who repelled it. 

Mere figures can only partly tell the awful losses in 
this battle. The Union army lost 23,000, and the Con- 
federates lost 30,000, more than one third of their army. 
Lee retreated to Virginia. His hope of Northern invasion 
was gone. 

457. Vicksburg. — The Fourth of July, 1863, was a sor- 
rowful day for the South, but it was celebrated with sad 
but earnest ardor in the North. On that day was heard 
the news of Gettysburg and also of Vicksburg. Grant and 
Sherman had been repulsed in their first efforts to take 
that stronghold on the Mississippi ( § 444)- Grant then 
moved his army down the west bank of the Mississippi, 
and even began to turn the mighty river into a new chan- 
nel. That was found impracticable, so he had the gun- 
boats run past the forts, and he marched below Vicksburg 
and crossed for an attack from the rear. He got between 
two Confederate armies, made General Joseph E. Johnston 
retreat, and drove General Pemberton, after hard fighting, 
into Vicksburg. Grant then settled down (May 19) for a 
siege. He cut the city off from all supplies until the 
people were forced to eat mules and rats. He bombarded 
the city until the people dug holes in the earth in which 
to get shelter. There was no relief, there was no escape. 
Pemberton surrendered, with 32,000 prisoners (July 4), and 
the Union soldiers promptly shared their food with the starv- 
ing men, women, and children. 

Five days later Port Hudson was captured, and then 
the Federals controlled the Mississippi River throughout 
its length. 

2F 



434 United States History for Schools 

458. Battle of Chickamauga (September 19-20, 1863). — 

The Confederates held Chattanooga in southeastern Tennes- 
see. It was an important railway center, and lay as a gate- 
way into Georgia. General Rosecranswith the Union army 
drove General Bragg out of the city, but when Bragg re- 
ceived reenforcements he had the larger army and turned 
at Chickamauga for an attack. The battle lasted two days, 
and was a Confederate victory. The Union defeat would 
have been much worse if it had not been for General 
George H. Thomas, who stood his ground like a rock 
until the Union forces could safely retreat to Chattanooga. 
From that time he was fondly called " The Rock of Chick- 
amauga." General Bragg then gave the Union troops a 
taste of that Vicksburg siege. He locked them up in Chat- 
tanooga. Ten thousand horses and mules starved to death. 
The men were reduced to half rations, and suffered while 
facing possible starvation for two months. Relief came 
when Generals Grant and Sherman arrived from the Mis- 
sissippi and General Hooker arrived from the Potomac. 
In five days Grant got the Tennessee River route opened 
so that food was obtained and plans were formed to attack 
the besieging Confederates. 

459. Two Spectacular Battles. — General Bragg's army 
held splendid positions on Lookout Mountain and Mis- 
sionary Ridge, both of which overlooked Chattanooga. 
Lookout Mountain was steep and jagged. Its capture was 
thought impossible. General Hooker was assigned the 
task, and his men accomplished it in the " Battle above the 
Clouds." Then General Sherman and General Thomas 
charged Missionary Ridge, and that second battle was also 
successful. General Bragg, driven from the field, retreated 
(November 25, 1863) into Georgia. 



Third Year of the Civil War 435 

460. Lincoln's Finest Speech (November 19, 1863). — A 

few days before the "Battle above the Clouds" President 
Lincoln took part in the ceremonies dedicating the Na- 
tional Cemetery on the battlefield of Gettysburg. On that 
occasion he gave his short but perfect address, beginning : 
" Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth 
on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and 
dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal." 
It is one of the classics of American literature. As Lin- 
coln stood on the ridge at the " High-water Mark," some 
one touched his arm and said : " Think, Mr. President, of 
the men who held these heights ! " Lincoln was looking 
across the valley billowed then with fresh graves. As 
tears rolled down his cheeks, he replied : " Yes, think of 
those brave men ; and think also of our brothers in gray 
who stormed these heights ! " 

461. Opposition, Drafts, and Riots. — Lincoln's heart was 
continually torn by thoughts of suffering. He angered 
the generals in the field by issuing so many pardons for 
those condemned to death. Through it all he was mis- 
understood and abused. In the North the radical Republi- 
cans and the War Democrats sustained him ; but others 
opposed him, and declared he had no business to liberate 
the slaves and that he was delaying the war. He was ridi- 
culed and called a monkey. " Punch," the comic newspaper 
of London, published mean pictures emphasizing his long 
legs and arms and his big ears. He calmly worked away, 
often far into the night. One day, while out driving with 
his wife for a little rest, they passed a country churchyard. 
The President's weary soul was shown in these words : 
" Mary, you are younger than I, and will probably live 
longer. When I die I want you to lay me away in a place 
like that." 



43' 



United States History for Schools 



The people were growing tired of the long war. They 
did not respond to the call for volunteers. Congress 
passed a law for men to be drawn by lot for service in the 
armies. This was called the draft. In New York a riot 
broke out against the draft. Houses were burned, negroes 
and some white men were killed. Troops were sent from 
Gettysburg, the riot was quelled, and the draft was com- 




BoY Soldiers in 1863. 

pleted. The Confederate Congress had also provided for 
a draft, and it was extended until boys of sixteen and old 
men were compelled to serve. 

462. Grant in Chief Command. — President Lincoln had 
had trouble in getting a leader to direct the military forces. 
General Scott was too old. He had tried to get Robert E. 
Lee, who reluctantly decided to " go with his State " when 



Third Year of the Civil War 437 

Virginia seceded (§ 425). General Halleck had not proved 
a success. When Grant forged ahead from Donelson to 
Vicksburg and Chattanooga, he was called to Washington, 
and the rank of Lieutenant General, highest in the army, 
was conferred upon him. That rank had never been held 
before except by Washington and Scott. Grant at once 
planned to " hammer" the Confederacy into submission by 
leading a strong army against Richmond and by sending 
another strong army under Sherman against Atlanta and 
on through Georgia. 

463. End of the Third Year of War. — By securing 
Vicksburg and control of the Mississippi, and by their 
victories in the states of Mississippi and Tennessee, the 
Federals practically confined the Confederacy to Virginia, 
North and South Carolina, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. 
Lee had met with disastrous defeat in his effort to invade 
the North. Though opposition had developed in the North 
the Union armies had been enlarged, regiments of brave 
negro soldiers had been enlisted ; but, above all, the Union 
armies had obtained a capable leader. The use of negro 
troops angered the South to such a point that all exchange 
of prisoners was stopped. That led to horrible suffering 
in the crowded and poorly provisioned prisons. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. How did " Stonewall " Jackson lose his life ? 

2. Why did Lee seek a victory in the North ? 

3. How did the battle of Gettysburg result ? 

4. How did Grant win Vicksburg ? 

5. Who was the " Rock of Chickamauga" } 

6. What resulted from the two battles near Chattanooga ? 

7. What do you remember of Lincoln's speech at Gettysburg ? 

8. How were " drafts " opposed ? 

9. What rank did Grant have when he took chief command .'' 
ID. What caused the South to stop exchanging prisoners ? 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

FOURTH YEAR OF THE CIVIL WAR 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 41 5-429 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 329-335. 

Home Readings. — Hart's Source Reader, Vol. IV., pp. 342-379 ; 
Page's Among the Camps ; Read's Sheridan's Ride ; Stoddard's Burial 
of Lincoln ; Work's Marching Through Georgia. 

464. Grant starts for Richmond (May, 1864). — Grant 
had an army of 120,000 men. To oppose him Lee had an 
army of 62,000 men. Soon after crossing the Rapidan, 
Grant met Lee in the Wilderness, a tangled forest where 
two days of hard fighting resulted (May 5-6). Grant tried 
a flank movement, and again encountered Lee at Spottsyl- 
vania Court House. Though the loss of life was terrible, 
Grant sent to headquarters his message : " I propose to 
fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." At Cold 
Harbor Grant made an assault that cost so many lives that 
he frankly said he regretted having made the charge 
(June 3). He crossed the James River, and sought to cap- 
ture Richmond from the south. He found heavy defenses 
at Petersburg, and settled down for a determined siege. 
Lee could not shake Grant off as he had the other generals. 
In fighting thus far Grant had lost 50,000 men. Lee had 
lost a smaller number, but he suffered more because he 
did not have the numbers to draw on that Grant had. 

465. " Back Door " Attack on Washington. — One way 
for Lee to shake off Grant was to attack Washington by 
that " Back Door," or the Shenandoah Valley. He sent 

438 



Fourth Year of the Civil War 439 



General Early on his famous raid (July). Early came up 
to the fortifications of the capital, but on the approach of 
troops sent by Grant he fell back through the rich valley, 
taking with him horses, cattle, and supplies greatly needed 
by the Confederate armies. Later Early's cavalry swept 
into Pennsylvania and burned the city of Chambersburg. 

Grant decided to stop such tricks once for all. He sent 
PhiUp H. Sheridan with a strong force of Union cavalry to 
destroy the source of supplies in the Shenandoah Valley 
(August). Sheridan burned houses, barns, mills, and stores 
of hay and grain, and drove off the live stock. It was said: 
" If a crow wants to fly down the valley, he must carry his 
provisions with him." 

General Early reappeared and defeated Sheridan's army 
at Cedar Creek, sending the men in a rout toward Winches- 
ter. Sheridan was stopping there over night after returning 
from Washington. He heard the cannons, and, mounting 
his handsome black horse, which soon looked white from its 
foam, he made his famous ride. Shouting to the retreating 
soldiers to turn back, he rode on to the front. He trans- 
formed defeat into victory, and drove Early's army out of 
the valley (October 19). After that battle Sheridan was 
given the rank of Major-General. 

466. Capture of Atlanta. — When Grant started for Rich- 
mond, Sherman at Chattanooga with 100,000 men faced 
General Johnston with 62,000 men. Georgia was the Con- 
federacy's best state for manirfactures and supplies. To 
destroy such sources of supply would help to end the war. 
But Sherman had to keep his own huge army supplied. 
He had to use many men over long distances to keep those 
supplies arriving on time. General Johnston cleverly 
sought to get Sherman where he could cut off those sup- 



440 United States History for Schools 

plies. Three battles were fought; but the Confederates 
thought Johnston too slow and sent General Hood in his 
place. Hood attacked Sherman, was defeated, and then 
Sherman captured Atlanta and destroyed it as a railroad 
center. Hood thought he would draw Sherman out of 
Georgia by marching north into Tennessee, but Sherman 
left General Thomas to look after 
Hood's army, and at Nashville 
Thomas completely routed Hood's 
forces. 

467. " From Atlanta to the Sea." — 
Sherman then cut loose from his base 
of supplies and started on his march 
through Georgia from Atlanta to the 
sea, about two hundred miles. He 
destroyed railroads, factories, and 
William T. Sherman. ^11 other sources of supplies as he 
marched, leaving a trail of devasta- 
tion behind him. He arrived at the sea, and sent President 
Lincoln a message (December 22) saying that he begged to 
present him as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah. 

468. Capture of Mobile. — The lines were tightening 
around the Confederacy. One of the best harbors for the 
" blockade runners " was Mobile. The Confederates had 
protected it by two forts, by torpedoes, and by a fleet of 
gunboats in the harbor, including the ironclad Tennessee. 
Admiral Farragut, with a fleet of fourteen wooden warships 
and four monitors, and with a land force of 5000 men, was 
sent to capture the place. Better to direct the fight, the 
Admiral took a position in the rigging of his flagship, the 
Hartford, He knew the danger, for in a letter to his wife 
at home he had said : " God bless and preserve you, my 




Fourth Year of the Civil War 



441 



darling, and my dear boy, if anything should happen to 
me." At six o'clock he sailed into the harbor. One mon- 
itor was destroyed by a torpedo, but by ten o'clock the 
Confederate fleet was defeated (August 5, 1864), and Mo- 
bile was soon in the hands of the Union forces. The 
Alabama had been 
sunk in a duel with 
the Kearsarge, and 
the Confederate 
navy was practi- 
cally destroyed. 

469. Lincoln elec- 
ted for a Second 
Term. — - The op- 
position to Lincoln 
manifested itself in 
the campaign of 
1864. The radical 
RepubHcans nom- 
inated General Fre- 
mont, who later de- 
clined to run. The 
Democrats de- 
clared the war a 
failure and nomi- 
nated General Mc- 
Clellan. The Na- 
tional Union party, 

made up of Republicans and War Democrats, nominated 
Lincoln, and for Vice President nominated the War Dem- 
ocrat, Andrew Johnson of Tennessee. The people believed 
that Lincoln was doing as well as any man could in such a 




David Farragut. 



442 United States History for Schools 

trying place, for they gave him a large majority in the 
election. His second inaugural address was brief, but it 
showed that he felt that slavery was the real cause of the 

^o'OhA^ Sl^TijL, (hiA:>hJ, ^TKoah^ 

^Cr^.^^ of <^?Ul.«cu^/g.<UiZ? Mc^^^ A^ ^^ -W^^/Su. ^ 

<r/' wvc^ ■v-c.r^y<u>-eyrt,j^><jt:^ awU. .^t«t«-^ 'J^^'^ -o^^-^ "^^ f^«-^^^^^c><^ 

7>v,£,.-l,>ve>-7^ <rj 't^T^g/ X^rvt^ CUn/eyt £t>-^, Oyiy^ct "t^iCt, ,^^,o£t.v>f,>^ -Ky-iycZt^ 

Lincoln's Letter to Mrs. Bixby. 

war. In the same month of his second election Lincoln 
wrote with his own hand that tender letter to Mrs. Bixby, 
who had lost five sons in the war. 

470. Sherman's March North. — While Lincoln was pre- 



Fourth Year of the Civil War 



443 



paring for his second inauguration, Sherman marched 
north from Savannah. He encountered General Johnston 
at Goldsboro and defeated him. He then left his army at 
Goldsboro and went to City Point on the James River for 
consultation with General Grant, who was still besieging 
Richmond. Sherman's army prevented any chance of 
Lee's escape to the southward. 

471. Fall of Richmond (April 2, 1865). — On Sunday 
morning a Confederate officer entered St. Paul's Episcopal 
Church in Richmond, and handed President Davis a message 
from Lee saying he was going to 
leave Richmond. Davis hastily left 
the church, and soon after fled from 
Richmond into North Carolina. 
Grant had made a general assault 
upon Petersburg and captured it. 
The next day (April 3) he entered 
Richmond. Lee had retreated to 
the west. His men saw that the 
end was near, and were disheartened. 
Many of them threw down their 
arms and went to their homes. 

472. Lee's Surrender at Appomattox. 
cavalry had raided the districts around Richmond, destroy- 
ing the supplies of Lee's army. As the retreat began, 
Grant followed hastily to end the war by capturing the 
Confederate leader and his army. Lee consented to meet 
Grant at Appomattox to talk over terms of surrender. 
When Grant said the officers should not be humiliated by 
being required to give up their side arms and that the men 
who owned their horses might take them home for the 
" spring plowing," Lee said such treatment would be 




Philip H. Sheridan. 



General Sheridan's 



444 United States History for Schools 

appreciated by his men. The surrender was completed. 
Grant gave orders to issue food to the hungry Confederates. 
He also ordered that all cheering cease and that nothing 
but respect should be shown their conquered fellow-coun- 
trymen. Grant's splendid attitude endeared him to the 
Southern soldiers. Lee went back to his home in Rich- 




Last Reception by President Lincoln. 

mond, laid away his uniform, and set a fine example by at 
once becoming a loyal citizen of the republic. 

A few days later, on learning of Lee's surrender, General 
Johnston surrendered his army to General Sherman, 
General Johnston in his last orders to his troops said : " I 
earnestly expect you to observe faithfully the terms of 
pacification agreed upon, and to discharge the obligations 
of good and peaceful citizens as well as you have performed 
the duties of thorough soldiers in the field." 



Fourth Year of the Civil War 



445 



473. The Old Flag at Sumter. — As the anniversary of 
the fall of Fort Sumter (April 14) approached, General 
Anderson took the same flag he had been compelled to 
haul down, and raised it again over the ruined walls. That 
act was taken to mean that the Civil War had lasted 
exactly four years. 

474. Death of President Lincoln. — Profound relief 
spread over the entire country when Lee surrendered 
and it was known that the war was ended. In the midst 
of rejoicing there 



TH E IHESIPENT IS DEA D! 

WAR DEPARTMENT, 

Washiiigton, April 15, 1865. 

To MAJ. GEN. DEK. 

Abraham Lincoln died this 
morning at 22 minntes after 
Seven o'clock 

EM. STANTON. Sec. of War. 



came an awful shock 
of sorrow. Lincoln 
was assassinated. A 
secret plot had been 
formed to murder the 
President, Vice Presi- 
dent, the Cabinet offi- 
cers, and General 
Grant. Secretary 
Seward was badly 
wounded and almost 
killed. The others escaped, except the President, who was 
shot through the head while seated with friends in Ford's 
Theater. He was carried into a house across the street, 
where he died early the next morning (April 15, 1865). 
Booth, the murderer, was pursued and killed ; four others 
of the conspirators were hanged and four imprisoned. 
Thousands of mourning citizens viewed the remains of their 
dead President as pauses were made by the funeral train 
on the sad journey to his old home in Springfield. His 
neighbors had not seen him since he had spoken his tremb- 
ling farewell, a little over four years before (§419). With 



446 United States History for Schools 

broken hearts they received his body for " its long rest at 
home." 

Throughout the world there was an awakening to the 
grandeur of Lincoln's character. In London, " Punch " had 
been ridiculing him (§ 461) for four years, but on the news 
of his death that paper published the picture of a coffin 
bearing the name of Lincoln. At its head was the figure 
of " Columbia " bent in grief, and approaching was the 
figure of " Britannia " bearing a wreath of flowers. The 
paper published a poem, one verse of which was : — 

"Beside this corpse, that bears for winding sheet 
The stars and stripes he lived to rear anew, 
Between the mourners at his head and feet, 
Say, scurrile jester, is there room for you ? " 

In splendid strains the poem then told how they had 
come to know the real worth of Lincoln, Later Maurice 
Thompson showed how the South had also learned to love 
the man, when he wrote his poem beginning : — 

" May one who fought in honor for the South 
Uncovered stand and sing by Lincoln''s grave?" 

475. The Grand Review. — The Confederates' govern- 
ment was gone. They had no capital to march to, but 
they took a sad farewell of their beloved leaders, and 
hastened to their homes. About a million troops of the 
Union armies were taken to Washington for a last march 
in review. Vice President Andrew Johnson had become 
President. He, with army officers and other distinguished 
men, stood for two days reviewing the marching columns. 
The sight was seldom if ever equaled. The veterans 
were soon mustered out, and returned to their homes to 
resume their work as citizens of the reunited nation. 



Fourth Year of the Civil War 447 



476. Two Noble Commissions. — It will never be known 
just how many lives were lost during the war. The total 
is estimated as more than half a million. A majority 
of the deaths occurred from disease and exposure. Two 
commissions of noble-hearted men and women did all 
that was possible to reduce the loss of hfe. These were 
the Sanitary and the Christian Commissions. One pre- 
pared hospital supplies and comforts for the men. The 
distant and sparsely settled territory of Washington 
worked with enthusiasm on hospital supplies, as that was 
the only way those so far away could help. In all states 
and territories such work was gladly contributed. The 
Christian Commission sent rehgious and bodily help into 
every possible corner of the struggle. It made little 
difference if the uniform was "blue" or "gray," the 
wounded and suffering were helped. The government 
gave aid to both these commissions. 

477. Enormous Money Cost of the War. — It is simply 
impossible even to estimate the enormous cost of the war 
in money. Through the wise and energetic work of 
Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, the govern- 
ment kept up its supply of money ; but at the end of the 
war the national debt had risen to $2,800,000,000. Enor- 
mous as that figure is, it does not include the expenditures 
and losses of states, cities, and individuals. Then there 
were the great expenditures and losses of the Confederate 
government, states, cities, and individuals in the South. 

478. Money and Banking. — The government borrowed 
large sums of money on interest-bearing bonds or promises 
to pay at the end of long terms of years. In addition the 
government issued interest-bearing bills, or paper money, 
and about four hundred million dollars of non-interest-bear- 



44^ United States History for Schools 

ing bills. These were called "greenbacks." They de- 
creased in value, and made trouble for many people. The 
banks also issued paper money until stopped by the gov- 
ernment. This was done when the new National Bank 
law was framed (1863). A bank to become national had 
to deposit in the Treasury United States government bonds 
equal to two thirds of the bank's capital, and then the bank 
could issue paper money equal to ninety per cent of the 
bonds it had deposited. That plan gave security to the 
bank's paper money, and at the same time made a market 
for the bonds. A heavy tax placed on the paper money of 
all other banks except national ones drove such money out 
of use, and caused the banks to adapt themselves to the 
National Bank law. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. What kind ot campaign did Grant start against Richmond ? 

2. Describe Slieridan's campaign in the Shenandoah Valley. 

3. How did Sherman capture Atlanta ? 

4. Describe his march to the sea. 

5. Describe Lincoln's second election. 

6. How did President Davis receive the news that Richmond was to 
be vacated ? 

7. How did Grant treat Lee at Appomattox ? 

8. When was the same tattered flag again raised at Sumter ? 

9. Describe the death of Lincoln. 

10. What was the Grand Review ? 

1 1 . What kinds of work had been done by the Sanitary and the 
Christian Commissions? 

12. What do you think of the money cost of the war? 

13. How were money issues and banking improved during the war? 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 

RECONSTRUCTION 

References. — Vshley's American History, pp. 431-447 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 336-351. 

Home Readings. — Hale's Mr. Merriam's Scholars ; Hart's Source 
Reader, Vol. IV., pp. 381-418; Turgee's A Fool's Errand. 

479. The North and South. — In the North there were 
many homes in mourning over the loss of dear ones on the 
battlefields, on the marches, at sea, and in prisons. Taxes 
were high and hard to meet, for many breadwinners were 
away from home fighting to preserve the Union. And yet, 
in a way, the North was prosperous. New farms spread 
over the West, new railroads were built, and new factories 
grew up, protected by the heavy war tariff. Nevada poured 
out so much silver that its increased population was re- 
warded by admittance to the Union (1864). Gold was dis- 
covered in the Northwest, and two new territories were 
organized, — Idaho (1863) and Montana (1864). 

It was all sadly different in the South. Except Gettys- 
burg the battles were all fought on Southern fields. The 
destruction of property was appalling. The loss of life 
was even worse than in the North, because the proportion 
was greater. Added to the sorrow in the bereaved homes 
was the misery of a devastated country. Plantations were 
ruined. Slaves were freed. What should be done with 
the millions of negroes .-* People who had been rich were 
poor. Women had cut up their carpets for soldiers' blan- 
2G 449 



450 United States History for Schools 



kets. The churches had given their bells to be cast into 
cannons. On every side were evidences that the country 
was prostrate. With magnificent courage the people set 
to work to repair the damages as best they could. One 
of the first needs was the restoration of law and order. 
To secure these the government must be restored or 
" reconstructed " so the states of the South would again 

'be parts of the nation. 
This ought to have 
been a simple thing to 
do after the war was 
ended, but mistakes and 
misunderstandings 
made it very difhcult. 
480. Policies of 
Lincoln and Johnson. — 
Lincoln wanted full for- 
getfulness and full res- 
toration for the seceded 
states as quickly as they 
would agree to support 
the Constitution and the 
laws of Congress. He 
had proceeded far 
enough to recognize new governments in Arkansas, Louis- 
iana, and Tennessee. 

The new President, Andrew Johnson, held the same ideas 
on the subject, but there was a very great difference be- 
tween the two men. Johnson had also come from a humble 
home, and was ruggedly honest. But he did not know how 
to get along with men. He was stubborn and headstrong. 
He had been a War Democrat, and the majority of Congress 




Andrew Johnson. 



Reconstruction 451 



was Republican. Instead of proceeding cautiously, as Lin- 
coln would have done, to win support for his plans, he pushed 
ruthlessly ahead. Congress had proposed the Thirteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution (February i, 1865) to 
abolish slavery. The President recognized the seceded 
states as fast as they reorganized and agreed to the Amend- 
ment. 

481. Policy of Congress. — When Congress assembled in 
December (1865), the members were angry over two con- 
ditions. The first was the condition arising from the 
promises and arrangements made for reconstruction by 
the President without a thought of what Congress might 
plan or desire. The second was the fact that the legisla- 
tures in some Southern states had hastened to pass laws 
to restrain the recently freed slaves. To the Southerner 
such restraint seemed absolutely essential, if the white 
man was to continue to live in the South. But to Northern 
congressmen, those laws for restraint looked like efforts to 
defeat the dearly bought results of the war. In that 
angry temper Congress proceeded to adopt its " Thor- 
ough " policy of reconstruction. The seceded states were 
to be treated as outsiders. " A Territory by coming into 
the Union becomes a State, and a State by going out of 
the Union becomes a Territory." Congress would disci- 
pline those states before they were received back into the 
national family. 

482. Congress and President Quarrel. — Congress passed 
a law extending the limit of the " Freedmen's Bureau " 
and giving that Bureau greater powers in the South in 
helping the liberated negroes to enter upon the enjoy- 
ment of their new rights. Men who interfered with the 
freedmen's rights were to be tried by military courts, and 



45^ United States History for Schools 

some troops were still kept throughout the South. Presi- 
dent Johnson vetoed the new law. Not content with that, 
he referred to Congress with bitter contempt in a public 
speech, and Congress at once planned to pass laws over 
his veto. The President made more bitter public speeches 
against Congress for passing laws in defiance of the Execu- 
tive. The undignified quarrel grew worse from day to day. 

483. The Fourteenth Amendment. — Congress proposed 
(1866) the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 
making invalid all debts or obligations " incurred in aid 
of insurrection or rebellion against the United States." 
That meant the Confederate states could not legally pay 
their war debts. It also defined the rights of citizens. 
The seceded states would have to adopt that amendment 
before Congress would admit them back into the Union. 

484. The French driven out of Mexico. — The govern- 
ment accomplished some work, in spite of the troubles over 
the quarrel between Congress and the President. One 
such piece of work was the maintenance of the Monroe 
Doctrine. At the close of the war our protests against 
French occupation of Mexico (§ 435) were made more 
pointed by sending troops to the border of that country. 
The French troops then withdrew, and Emperor Maxi- 
milian, who decided to defend his new throne, was cap- 
tured by the Mexicans, condemned, and shot (June 19, 
1867). 

485. The Atlantic Cable. — Since Professor Morse had 
invented the electric telegraph (§ 364), men had dreamed of 
ways to send messages across the ocean. Cyrus W. Field 
of New York organized a company that invested several 
millions of dollars before the first cable was laid across 
the Atlantic (1858). Messages were sent for a few weeks, 



Reconstruction 453 



and then the cable broke. Mr. Field formed a new com- 
pany, and the Great Eastern, the largest steamer of that 
time, laid a new cable from Ireland to Newfoundland. On 
July 27, 1866, messages were again sent and received, and 
no interruption has since occurred. Europe and America 
no longer seemed so far apart. 

486. Purchase of Alaska (1867). — Another important 
event of that troubled time was the treaty negotiated with 
Russia by Secretary of State Seward by which the United 
States bought for $7,200,000 the region known as Russian 
America. Its name was soon changed to Alaska. Seward 
was roundly abused for buying that " region of icebergs 
and polar bears." On his deathbed Seward said that some 
day the purchase of Alaska would be called the greatest 
achievement of his life. In fulfillment of that prophesy 
the city of Seattle has reared a statue of Seward out of 
gratitude for his wise statesmanship in securing that great 
storehouse of fabulous wealth. 

487. The President on Trial. — The unfortunate quarrel 
between Congress and the President grew more bitter, and 
finally reached such a pitch that the House of Represen- 
tatives, acting under the Constitution (Article II., § 4), 
brought him to trial, charging him with " high crimes and 
misdemeanors." The Senate acted as jury, and the Chief 
Justice presided. This is the only time a President of the 
United States has been put on trial. For two months 
(1868) the case was fought. At the end thirty-five senators 
voted for conviction, and nineteen voted against it. A two 
thirds vote was necessary, and so conviction failed by one 
vote. 

488. Election of Grant (1868). — Congress had restored 
to the Union all but four — Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi, 



454 United States History for Schools 

and Texas — of the seceded states when the time came 
to elect a new President. The Republicans approved the 
Congressional plan of reconstruction in their platform, and 
nominated General Grant as their candidate. In spite of 
his lack of tact and his stubbornness, President Johnson 
was honest and fearless. He deserved friends, and he had 
them, but they were not numerous enough to get him a 
nomination. Instead, the Democrats nominated Horatio 
Seymour of New York. General Grant was elected by a 
large majority, — two hundred and fourteen electoral votes 
to eighty. One new state, Nevada, voted for President in 
this election for the first time. The law admitting the 
state (1867) was one of those passed by Congress over 
President Johnson's veto. 

489. The Fifteenth Amendment. — - A week before Gen- 
eral Grant was inaugurated, Congress proposed the Fif- 
teenth Amendment to the Constitution forbidding the 
United States or any separate state to deny the right of 
citizens to vote " on account of race, color, or previous con- 
dition of servitude." The adoption of this amendment 
was made necessary for the readmission of the four states 
still out of the Union. Those four states complied with 
all the requirements of Congress, and the Union was again 
complete (January, 1870). 

490. " Carpet Baggers " rule the South. — Not all the 
trouble of Johnson's administration took place in or around 
Washington. By the three amendments to the Constitu- 
tion (§§ 480, 483, 488) the slaves had been declared free, 
then citizens, and then voters. The Freedmen's Bureau, 
the army and civil officers appointed by the government, 
undertook to establish the negroes in their new rights. 
Unscrupulous white men from the North, whose main in- 



Reconstruction 



455 



terest was in what money they could make out of the situa- 
tion, flocked to the South to secure offices and to " lead " 
the negroes in politics. Many of these had no other bag- 
gage than what they carried in the old-fashioned valises or 
"carpet bags." They were therefore called "Carpet Bag- 
gers." A few Southern white men joined them in their 
miserable work, and they were despised under the name of 




Capitul of the United States. 

" Scalawags." During the process of reconstruction the 
former white citizens who had been Confederates were pre- 
vented from voting in their own home cities. Negroes 
were elected to the legislatures, and were guided by the 
rascals. They voted heavy taxes and heavy bonded debts 
for the states. Much of the money found its way into the 
pockets of the " Carpet Baggers " and " Scalawags." The 
real citizens were powerless while their loved states, spoiled 



456 United States History for Schools 

by war, were being again spoiled by thieves in the guise of 
legal officers. Not all the white officers were rascals, nor 
all the negroes dupes ; but there was enough of both evils 
to make an appalling total of wrongdoing. 

491. Ku-Klux Klan. — In some states the white men by 
peaceful means got control of the governments. In others 
forceful intimidation was resorted to, especially by a secret 
society called Ku-Klux Klan. By ghostly threats and by 
actual violence negroes were kept from voting or holding 
office. Not a few murders are charged to this movement 
before it was finally stamped out. 

492. End of the Period of Strain. — The period called 
" Straining the Constitution "(§ 345) came to an end with 
the administration of President Grant. The nation had been 
greatly expanded by conquest and purchase. The number 
of citizens had been enormously increased by foreign 
immigrants and by taking over four million freed slaves. 
The Constitution had been strained and amended. Slavery 
was the greatest cause of strain, and slavery was gone. 
With it had also gone belief in the theories of States' Rights 
and Secession. The reunited nation would face new prob- 
lems with abundant hope and courage. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. What were the conditions in the North after the war? in the 
South ? 

2. What were the reconstruction policies of Presidents Lincoln and 
Johnson ? 

3. What was the " Thorough " policy of Congress ? 

4. What caused the quarrel between the President and Congress ? 

5. What did the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution 
provide ? 

6. How were the French driven out of Mexico ? 



Reconstruction 457 



7. Who was responsible for the Atlantic cable ? 

8. How was Alaska acquired by the United States ? 

9. How did the trial of the President result ? 

10. Who was elected President to succeed Johnson ? 

11. What was provided in the Fifteenth Amendment to the Con- 
stitution ? 

12. Who were " Carpet Baggers," and what did they do ? 

13. What was the Ku-Klux Klan ? 

14. What had disappeared at the end of the period of '"' Straining 
the Constitution " ? 

CHRONOLOGY 

1829 . . March 4. Jackson inaugurated President. 
Spoils System begun. 

1831 . . Garrison published first issue of " The Liberator." 

McCormick invented reaper. 

1832 . . Battle of Orators on the Nullification issue. 

1833 . . Jackson destroys United States Bank. 

Fort Dearborn became Chicago. 

1835 • • Texas seceded from Mexico. 

1836 . . Arkansas admitted to the Union. 

1837 . . Michigan admitted to the Union. 

March 4. Van Buren inaugurated President. 
Panic. 

1839 • • Express business begun. 

1840 . . Independent Treasury created by Congress. 

1841 . . March 4. William Henry Harrison inaugurated President. 

1842 . . Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island. 

Webster-Ashburton Treaty concluded. 

1844 . . Morse sent first message by telegraph. 

1845 • • Texas annexed by joint resolution. 

Howe's sewing machine invented. 
Florida admitted to the Union. 
March 4. Polk inaugurated President. 
Texas admitted to the Union. 

1846 . . Treaty dividing Old Oregon Country. 

Mexican War begun. 

Iowa admitted to the Union. 



458 United States History for Schools 

1846 . . Wilmot Proviso. 

1847 . . March 27. Vera Cruz captured. 

September 14. General Scott entered city of Mexico. 

1848 . . Treaty of Peace with Mexico. 

Gold discovered in California. 
Wisconsin admitted to the Union. 
Mormons settled at Salt Lake, Utah. 
Year of revolutions in Europe. 

1849 • • March 4. Taylor inaugurated. 

California adopted a state constitution. 

1850 . . " Omnibus Bill " Compromise. 

California admitted to the Union. 
Panama Canal Treaty. 

1852 . . "Uncle Tom's Cabin." 

1853 . . March 4. Pierce inaugurated President. 

1854 . . Commodore Perry's treaty with Japan. 

Ostend Manifesto. 

Missouri Compromise repealed. 

1856 . . Republican party organized. 

1857 . . March 4. Buchanan inaugurated President. 

Dred Scott Decision. 
Panic. 

1858 . . Minnesota admitted to the Union. 

Lincoln-Douglas debate. 

1859 . . Oregon admitted to the Union. 

Silver in Nevada. 

Oil in Pennsylvania. 

John Brown's Raid. 
i860 . . Election of Lincoln. 

Secession by South Carolina. 
1 861 . . Other states seceded and formed Confederacy. 

March 4. Inauguration of Lincoln. 

Kansas admitted to the Union. 

April 12. Fort Sumter bombarded. 

Call for volunteers. 

July 21 . Battle of Bull Run. 

Confederate commissioners taken from British steamer 
Trent. 



Reconstruction ^ 459 



1862 . . European invasion of Mexico. 

February i6. Surrender of Fort Donelson. 

March g. Battle between Monitor and Merrimac. 

April 6-7. Battle of Shiloh. 

April 25. Capture of New Orleans. 

May 31. Battle of Seven Pines. 

August 29-30. Second battle of Bull Run. 

September 17. Battle of Antietam. 

Emancipation Proclamation. 

December 13. Battle of Fredericksburg. 

1863 . . May 2-3. Battle of Chancellorsville. 

West Virginia admitted to the Union. 
July 1-3. Battle of Gettysburg. 
July 4. Siege of Vicksburg culminated. 
September 19-20. Battle of Chickamauga. 
November 24-25. Battles of Chattanooga. 
Grant made lieutenant general. 

1864 . . Sherman's success in Georgia. 

Grant started toward Richmond in May. 
Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley. 
Nevada admitted to the Union. 

1865 . . April 2. Fall of Richmond. 

April 9. Surrender of Lee's army. 
April 15. Death of Lincoln. 
May 23-24. The Grand Review. 

1866 . . The French driven out of Mexico. 

Completion of the Atlantic cable. 

Congress proposed Fourteenth Amendment. 

1867 . . Nebraska admitted to the Union. 

Purchase of Alaska. 

1868 . . Attejiipt to impeach President Johnson. 

1869 . . Fifteenth Amendment proposed by Congress. 

March 4. Grant inaugurated President. 



VII 

The United States a Greater Nation 

J- 
CHAPTER XXXIX 

ADJUSTMENTS AND PROGRESS 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 447-460 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 353-360. 

Home Readings. — McMurry's Pioneer History Stories, Vol. HI., pp. 
1 14-164 (Powell in Grand Canyon); Morse's Abraham Lincoln, Vol. 
H., Chapter VIII.; Rhodes's History of the United States, Chapters 
XXX.-XXXII. 

493. First Railroad across the Continent. — Soon after 
President Grant was inaugurated, an interesting ceremony 
took place at Ogden, Utah (May 10, 1869). Wires were 
so arranged that each blow of the hammer as it fell upon 
a spike was recorded by telegraph all over the country. 
It was the last spike in the first railroad across the conti- 
nent. The Union Pacific Railroad had been built from 
Omaha to Ogden, 1029 miles, and the Central Pacific Rail- 
road from San Francisco to Ogden, 878 miles. By driving 
that last spike the two ends were brought together, and 
the road was completed. To help build the road the gov- 
ernment had granted (§430) 25,000,000 acres of pubhc 
land and $55,000,000 in money. Enormous as those 
figures seem, the benefits to the nation were even more 
enormous, for the West was stimulated to more rapid de- 

460 



Adjustments and Progress 461 



velopment, and business with the Orient and other Pacific 
countries also demonstrated the value of the railroad. 




494. Weather Bureau. -The government was acting 
wisely in helping to build the "first railroads and in encour- 



462 United States History for Schools 

aging agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce. As a 
further aid the Weather Bureau was established (1870) to 
study weather conditions and to give warrning of approach- 
ing storms. There is no way to compute the enormous 
value of property saved from destruction on land and sea 
by the warnings from this useful branch of government 
service. 

495. Destructive Fires. — No warning signal was given 
for the terrible visitations of fire. PInormous damage was 
done by forest fires in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota 
(1871), and in the autumn of the same year Chicago suffered 
a loss estimated at $200,000,000. The next year Boston 
was visited by a fire that destroyed property valued at 
$80,000,000. These losses aggravated the financial panic 
that came soon afterwards. 

496. Geneva Award in the Alabama Case. — " It is as 
much a part of the integrity of a man's character that he 
permit no wrong to be done him as that he do no wrong." 
The same is true of nations. The United States felt a 
wrong had been done by France in violating the Monroe 
Doctrine (§ 331) by invading Mexico (§ 435), and a show 
of force was made. France withdrew her troops (§ 484). 
The United States felt that a wrong had also been done by 
Great Britain in allowing Confederate cruisers to be built or 
outfitted in her ports (§§ 452-453), and pay was demanded 
for the damages wrought by those cruisers. The two 
nations reached a wise and famous agreement, known as 
the Treaty of Washington (1871), by which those claims 
and other pending disputes should be settled in a peaceful 
way. The President of the United States and the Queen 
of Great Britain should each name one arbitrator, and three 
others should be named, one' each by the King of Italy, the 



Adjustments and Progress 463 

President of Switzerland, and the Emperor of Brazil. The 
five were to meet in Geneva, Switzerland, and pass upon 
the claims. The decision reached was that the United 
States should receive $15,500,000 for the damages done by 
the Alabama and other cruisers that had sailed from Brit- 
ish ports. Great Britain accepted the decision and paid 
the money. 

497. The San Juan Case. — The same great treaty sub- 
mitted the disputed San Juan boundary to Emperor Wil- 
liam of Germany as arbitrator. He decided in favor of 
the United States, giving to the territory of Washington an 
interesting and valuable body of land known as the San 
Juan Archipelago. Each nation had kept a camp of sol- 
diers on San Juan Island for more than ten years while 
the dispute was going on, and it was most fortunate that a 
decision was reached without a conflict. 

498. The Dominion of Canada. — They were triumphs of 
peace ; but there was another reason for rejoicing over those 
arbitrations. Canada had been practically transformed 
into a new British neighbor for the United States. Upper 
Canada and lower Canada had been drifting along without 
much idea of real union, strength, and expansion. When 
the British Parliament passed the " British North America 
Act " (1867), the provinces luiited into the Dominion of 
Canada; and in that way a large British nation was created 
with great prospects of its own ahead, though it gladly and 
proudly retained its place as part of the British Empire. 
In General Grant's term the Americans saw their new neigh- 
bor begin a wonderful expansion westward by the organiza- 
tion of the provinces of Manitoba (1870) and of British 
Columbia (1871). 

499. Presidential Election of 1872. — The regular Re- 



464 United States History for Schools 

publican convention placed General Grant at the head of 
its ticket to give him a second term. But there was much 
dissatisfaction over the harsh treatment by Congress of the 
former Confederate leaders. The " Liberal Republicans " 
believed that those leaders should all be restored to full 
rights of citizens. They held a convention, and nominated 
the great editor, Horace Greeley. Though he had opposed 
slavery with, all his might, and had been a Whig and a 
Republican, he was indorsed by the " National Democrats." 
The contest was an earnest one, and General Grant won. 
The great editor died soon after his defeat. There were a 
number of other parties and candidates in the field. The 
regular Democrats had a candidate, the new Prohibition 
party had its first national platform and ticket in this elec- 
tion, and likewise the Labor party made its appearance. 
This last party declared in favor of paper money, an eight- 
hour labor law, and a law to keep Chinese laborers out of 
America. 

500. Labor Unions. — The vast increase in the numbers 
of workers in mines and factories and on railroads had re- 
sulted in the formation of unions or societies for the 
purpose of putting forth united effort toward securing 
better pay, better hours, and laws that would furnish 
proper protection to the workers. At first such unions 
were local. Later they were extended so as to be national 
in scope. Another development was the organization, 
through delegates or membership, of general societies 
that would unite the forces of the unions. Such a general 
organization was the "Knights of Labor" (1869), which 
grew to a membership of a million. Such a society of 
earnest and determined men would certainly wield great 
influence on business and politics. 



Adjustments and Progress 



465 



501. Corporations. — At the same time that the workers 
were forming unions, capital was also combining in the 
form of companies or corporations. Many of the works 
undertaken, such as railroads, canals, large mines, and 
factories, were too great for any one man's capital. To 
achieve success, men combined their resources by forming 
corporations. The interests of the two combinations of 




One of Chicago's Grain Elevators. 



labor and capital later came into conflict, producing serious 
and unfortunate disturbances. 

602. Panic of 1873. — Corporations increased their capital 
and planned new enterprises. Railroads were being built 
faster than business demanded. The Northern Pacific 
Railroad Company obtained a large land grant from Con- 
gress to build another line to the Pacific Coast. People 
wanted to get rich quick, and put their savings into rail- 
road stocks. In the midst of this feverish time of specula- 



466 United States History for Schools 

tion came the heavy losses by fire (§ 495), and at the same 
time the government drew a hundred million dollars of 
" greenbacks " out of circulation by redeeming them, and 
sixty millions of gold went to Europe because we were 
buying more goods than we were selUng. 

503. Natural Gas. — One thing that helped to restore 
" good times " was the discovery of natural gas in Pennsyl- 
vania (1874), and later in Ohio, Indiana, and elsewhere. 
This cheap fuel was used in manufacturing, for cooking 
and for lighting streets. 

504. Coinage Law of 1873. — In the midst of the panic 
Congress passed a law that aggravated the situation. 
The silver mines of Nevada and elsewhere were producing 
such quantities of that metal that many European nations 
ceased coining silver. The new law of Congress did 
the same thing for the United States. The people de- 
clared that it was done in the interest of the rich bond- 
holders, and the cry for the restoration of the " dollar of 
our daddies " became a part of the political agitation. 

505. Resumption of Specie Payment. — As usual in 
panics, people hid the gold and silver money. Green- 
backs declined in value, as some of them were not redeem- 
able in gold or silver. Congress passed a law (1875) 
to redeem the " greenbacks " in gold or silver. This at 
once raised the value of the paper money, which circulated 
freely, as people did not care to change it into gold or 
silver when they knew they could do so at any time 
they wished. 

506. A Bridge and a Jetty. — Two grand enterprises 
planned by one man helped to restore " good times." 
James B. Eads was an inventor and a great engineer. 
While only a boy ten years of age, he had modeled 



Adjustments and Progress 467 

sawmills, fire engines, and steamboats. During the Civil 
War he built ironclads for the government on the 
Mississippi River. After the war he built the magnificent 
steel arch bridge across the Mississippi at St. Louis 
( 1 867-1 874). In that bridge is one clear span of five 
hundred and twenty feet, called one of the finest specimens 
of metal arch construction in the world. The same 
engineer then got permission to build a jetty at the 
mouth of the Mississippi River. Bars of sand and mud 
had interfered with commerce, and there was grave doubt 
as to the outcome of the engineer's plan. He triumphed, 
and the mighty river has since swept clean its own 
channel where the jetty was built. New Orleans and 
all the country tributary to the Mississippi were greatly 
benefited. 

507. Indian Troubles. — The advance of civilization into 
the West brought clashes with the Indians during General 
Grant's administration. The Modoc Indians in Oregon 
refused to remain on their reservation, and a short war 
ensued (1872). When gold was found in the Black Hills 
of Dakota, the Sioux Indians objected to the rush of miners 
that disturbed their hunting of the buffalo and antelope. 
Disputes led to war, and an army was sent to subdue the 
Indians. In a battle in Montana General George A. Custer, 
largely outnumbered, was defeated (1876). He and all his 
officers and men were killed. The Indians then scattered, 
and quiet was restored for a time. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. When was the first raih'oad across the contuient completed? 

2. What service does the Weather Bureau render .'' 

3. How did England pay for the neglect of duty? 



468 United States History for Schools 

4. Describe the peaceful solution of the San Juan case. 

5. How was the government of Canada changed? 

6. Describe the organization of labor unions and of corporations. 

7. What caused the Panic of 1873 ? 

8. What changes were made in money laws? 

9. Describe the engineering works of Captain Eads. 
ID. Where did General Custer lose his life? 



CHAPTER XL 

CELEBRATIONS AND LABOR TROUBLES 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 460-472 ; Fairbanks's 
The Western United States; Hart's Source Book, pp. 360-365. 

508. The Nation's Centennial (1876). — While some still 
suffered from "hard times," and while Indians were fight- 




Silt . r..?, , ' '/ 



M^\-. 




Court OF Hon(.»u \i 1111 \\i>i:ih'> ('ommmw I M'osrnoN, Chicaoo, 

ing against the advancing line of civilization in the West, 
the nation put on her best attire to serve as host at Phila- 
delphia to representatives of all the nations of the world. 
At Fairmount Park in that city seventy-five acres were 
covered with large buildings of glass and steel in which 

469 



470 United States History for Schools 



were collected exhibits of industry, art, and natural re- 
sources from everywhere. It was the Centennial Exhibi- 
tion to celebrate the one hundredth birthday of the 
Declaration of Independence. The exhibits made clear 
the wonderful advances made in the hundred years. 
Hand labor had given place to a multitude of machines 
of various kinds. Two novelties, thought by many to be 
nothing more than interesting toys, were the electric light 

and the telephone, each destined 
to rapid development into most 
useful and widespread service. 

The progress of the nation was 
also manifested by the admission 
to the Union of another Western 
state, Colorado, which is called the 
" Centennial State." 

509. The Disputed Election 
(1876). — The joy over the Centen- 
nial Exhibition did not prevent the 
people from holding in memory 
the troubles growing out of money, 
labor, and political conditions. The Democrats had elected 
a majority of the House of Representatives (1874) and pro- 
posed to elect Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, President 
in 1876. The Republicans nominated General Rutherford 
B. Hayes of Ohio. The election was very close. " Car- 
pet Baggers " still had control in some Southern states, 
and their " returning boards " in South Carolina, Florida, 
and Louisiana sent in the votes of those states for General 
Hayes. If those votes were all counted, the result would 
stand one hundred and eighty-five for General Hayes and 
one hundred and eighty-four for Mr. Tilden, a majority of 




Samltp:l J. Tilden. 



Celebrations and Labor Troubles 



471 



one for the Republicans. But the Democrats of those 
three states claimed they were cheated by the " Carpet 
Baggers." It was a difficult situation. The Senate was 
Republican and the House Democratic. It was finally 
decided, without authority in the Constitution, to form an 
" Electoral Commission " consisting of five senators, five 
representatives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. 
When they were all selected, it was found that seven were 
Democrats and eight were Republi- 
cans. The decision was reached, by 
strict party vote, that General Hayes 
was elected. The passing of this 
serious political crisis without civil 
war was most fortunate. 

510. President Hayes a Patriot. — 
General Hayes had a brilliant record 
as a Union officer in the Civil War. 
As soon as he was inaugurated as 
President, he showed that he was 
also a brave patriot in times of peace. 
He knew that he had been elected 

by the " Carpet Baggers," and that they, in turn, held 
power in the South by the help of Federal troops. One of 
the first things the new President did was to issue orders 
withdrawing those troops from the South. The "Carpet 
Baggers " at once fell from power. The Southern states be- 
came thoroughly Democratic, known as the "Solid South." 

511. Railroad Strikes (1877). — The great work of Cap- 
tain Eads on the Mississippi jetty (§ 506) was completed 
during the administration of President Hayes (1879), but 
while it was going on, workers in other places entered 
upon serious strikes ( 1 877). There were about one hundred 




Rutherford B. Hayes. 



4.J1 United States History for Schools 




James A. Garfield. 



and fifty thousand raihoad men and miners who took part. 

The violence of the strikes centered at Pittsburg, where 

ten milhon dollars worth of 
property was destroyed before 
the President sent government 
troops to restore order. 

512. Civil Service Reform 
(1883). — The need of civil serv- 
ice reform was brought to the 
attention of the nation by a 
very sad event. General James 
A. Garfield of Ohio, a hero of 
the Civil War, had worked his 
own way upward from the hum- 
ble position of canal boy, and 
had been elected President to 

succeed General Hayes. Soon after inauguration he was 

shot (July 2, 1881), and lingered in painful suffering until 

relieved by death (September 19, 

1 881). The shot had been fired 

by Guiteau, a disappointed of- 
fice-seeker, who was executed for 

his crime. To relieve future 

presidents from such dangers as 

far as possible. Congress passed 

the Civil Service Reform Act 

(1883), which provided that 

many offices should be filled by 

competitive examinations instead 

of by presidential appointment. 

Vice President Chester A. Arthur of New York, who 

had become President on the death of President Garfield, 




Chester A. Arthur. 



Celebrations and Labor Troubles 



473 



gladly approved the act, and helped forward the needed 
reform. 

513. Four Evidences of Increased Wealth. — More than 
one hundred thousand persons were made homeless by the 
floods when the Mississippi River overflowed its banks 
(t882) in Louisiana. The great suffering was quickly re- 
lieved by the contributions from other sections, showing 




Brooklyn Bridge. 



that the nation was wealthy and generous enough to repair 
damages on even so enormous a scale. 

The completion of the Suspension Bridge from New 
York to Brooklyn (1883) was another evidence of the 
country's strength and skill. That bridge is one of the 
world's triumphs of engineering. It is more than a mile 
in length, required fourteen years in construction, and cost 
about fifteen million dollars. 



474 United States History for Schools 



The patronage of the post office had grown so great 
that the government reduced letter postage (1883) from 
three cents to two cents for each letter. 

The government also felt rich enough to begin the ex- 
penditure of large sums of money on the navy. After the 
Civil War the navy had consisted mostly of wooden ships, 
sadly out of date. The change came when four new steel 
cruisers were ordered (1883), and from that time the out- 
lay for the navy has increased to enormous proportions. 

514. The Cotton Centennial (1884). — Splendid evidence 
that the South had recovered from the ravages of war 
and was sharing in the nation's advance in wealth and 

industry was shown in the Cot- 
ton Centennial Exhibition in 
New Orleans (1884). The 
" Centennial " in this case cele- 
brated the seizure of those eight 
bales in Liverpool (§ 258) be- 
cause the "prodigious amount" 
was tho\ight to have been smug- 
gled. This exhibition, a hundred 
years later, showed that " Cotton 
was King," but it also showed 
that the South had great wealth 
in other forms of agriculture, in 
lumber, in factories, in coal, iron, 
and other mines. It showed that the negroes and the 
white men were sharing in the prosperity, and that free 
labor was many times better than slave labor had been. 
The exhibition also showed that the South had courageously 
taken up the large burden of education. Schools were 
maintained everywhere for the white children, and separate 




Grover Cleveland. 



Celebrations and Labor Troubles 



475 



Kfy^' 



ones for the black children. Enlightenment and industrial 
progress were marching hand in hand. The nation could 
well afford to take pride in what the Cotton Centennial 
disclosed to the world. 

515. A Democratic President. — During the Cotton Cen- 
tennial year the Democrats elected the first President of 
their party to hold office since the Civil War. Their suc- 
cessful candidate was 

Grover Cleveland, who 
had become a national 
figure through his 
record as Governor of 
New York. The term 
of four years following 
his inauguration ( 1885) 
was a time of serious 
labor troubles, out of 
which, directly or indi- "^^S^ 
rectly, grew important 
laws. 

516. Death of General 
Grant. — While Grover 
Cleveland was being 
inaugurated, General 
Grant was suffering with what proved a fatal illness. He 
had invested his money in a business that failed. He then 
set to work on his " Memoirs," the sale of which would bring 
his wife and family an income after he was gone. Bravely 
he wrote messages of love to his wife, and little greetings to 
the crowds who watched and hoped for good news. No 
battle tested his courage more than that last struggle. After 
his death (July 23, 1885) New York erected a magnificent 







Grant's Tomb in New York. 



476 United States History for Schools 

tomb of white granite, overlooking the Hudson River. 
Every visitor to the tomb may read the grim soldier's most 
famous sentence. The four words should be remembered 
and cherished by every American. They are : " Let us 
have peace." 

517. Industrial Peace Needed. — The labor unions and 
societies (§ 500) had grown stronger, and were seeking to 
improve their condition. Their influence was strong enough 
to secure from Congress a series of laws to restrict the 
coming of undesirable classes from foreign countries. One 
of those laws excluded contract laborers (1885). That is, 
corporations could no longer bring in numbers of miners 
or other laborers under contract to do certain work. On 
the Pacific Coast the Chinese laborers were the cause of 
much agitation and trouble. Riots broke out in Puget 
Sound cities (1885) that were finally quieted with United 
States troops. 

The year 1886 is called the "Year of Strikes." Start- 
ing with the street car men of New York, the strikes 
spread west and south. In Chicago forty thousand men 
left work. Great armies of strikers paraded through the 
streets. The handling of freight and the delivery of goods 
were brought to a stop. When the policemen attempted 
to preserve order at a meeting in Haymarket Square, a 
dynamite bomb was thrown among them, resulting in the 
death of seven officers and the wounding of sixty others. 
When arrested the ringleaders were found to be foreigners 
who belonged to a small but dangerous group called An- 
archists. They were against all forms of government. 
Four of the leaders were hanged. 

For the Knights of Labor there arose as a rival a gen- 
eral organization of workers in the American Federation 



Celebrations and Labor Troubles 477 

of Labor, organized at this time (1886). Organized labor 
strongly disapproved the horrible methods used by those 
Anarchists in Chicago. 

518. Combinations and Trusts. — Besides the " strike," 
the workers liad used another form of attack called the 
" boycott," by which they refused to have dealings with 
what they called " unfair" firms or factories and by which 
they sought to prevent others from having such dealings. 
Against the "strike" and the "boycott" the employers 
used the "lock-out" and the "black list." By these they 
closed their shops and factories to the workers or locked 
them out, and wrote the names of the leading strikers on 
lists which were sent to other employers to prevent such 
leaders from getting work. The telegraph and telephone 
made such lists effective over wide areas. 

Besides these contests with labor, capitalists were mak- 
ing big combinations. Smaller companies were being ab- 
sorbed. It is true that much saving resulted by these 
combinations cutting down competition, but a revolution 
was resulting in business methods. As the combinations 
grew in size, they became " trusts," and these threatened 
to become monopolies. States began to pass laws, but as 
such state laws could not reach from one state into 
another, it became necessary for the nation to act under 
the provision of the Constitution (Article I., Sec. 8) giving 
Congress power to regulate commerce " among the several 
states." 

519. Federal Laws. — As the greatest evil growing out 
of the combination of capital seemed to be connected with 
the great railways, Congress passed (1887) the act creat- 
ing the Literstate Commerce Commission to prevent the 
railways from discriminating for or against shippers or 



47^ United States History for Schools 

cities. Later Congress passed (1890) the Sherman Anti- 
Trust Law to prevent combinations in restraint of trade. 
Congress also showed an interest in labor by creating the 
Department of Labor (1888) to gather information about 
all conditions of labor and to render any other possible 
assistance. -After that the United States Commissioner of 
Labor was often called upon to help settle disputes between 
laborers and employers. 

Congress also passed a law to exclude from the country 
Chinese laborers (1888). The Chinese were faithful 
workers, and were always peaceful. The argument against 
them was that they worked for low wages, lived on a few 
cents a day, and went back to China as soon as they had 
saved enough to support them there. In other words, 
they competed with white laborers, cheapened labor, and 
gave nothing to the country in return. 

520. Presidential Succession Law. — Soon after election 
Vice-President Thomas A. Hendricks died (1885). If 
President Cleveland should then die, there might be con- 
fusion for a time. Congress passed the Presidential Suc- 
cession Law (1886), by which it was provided that if the 
President and Vice President should both die, the presi- 
dency should go to the Secretary of State ; and if he should 
die, it would go to the next Cabinet officer, and so on, the 
rank being according to the time the Cabinet office was 
created. This made the order as follows : Secretary of State, 
Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney- 
General, Postmaster-General, Secretary of the Navy, 
Secretary of the Interior, Secretary of Agriculture, and 
Secretary of Commerce and Labor. The last two offices 
were created after the law was passed, but they take their 
place in the succession. 



Celebrations and Labor Troubles 479 



521. The Statue of Liberty. — One pleasant event that 
took place in President Cleveland's administration was the 
unveiling of the French sculptor Bartholdi's large statue 
of " Liberty Enlightening the World " on Bedloe's Island, 
New York Harbor (1886). The statue is one hundred and 
fifty-one feet high, and the pedestal is one hundred and 
fifty-five feet high. It is the largest work of the kind ever 
completed. The famous " Colossus of Rhodes," one of 
the " Seven Wonders of the World," was a miniature by 
comparison. The huge bronze figure of Liberty holding 
aloft the torch was the gift of one hundred thousand 
Frenchmen, who contributed the necessary two hundred 
thousand dollars. The pedestal cost three hundred 
thousand doHars, and this sum was contributed by citizens 
throughout the United States. Such a magnificent gift 
ought to help perpetuate the friendship between the two 
republics — France and America. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. What were two " toys" at the Centennial Exhibition.? 

2. Describe the disputed election of 1876. 

3. How did President Hayes end the rule of " Carpet Ba(^<^ers " in 
the South ? 

4. Tell how the death of President Garfield aided Civil Service 
Reform. 

5. Describe the Suspension Bridge. 

6. When did the new American navy begin? 

7. What was the most cheering exhibition at the Cotton Centennial ? 

8. What four words of General Grant should we all remember? 

9. Why might 1886 be called the " Year of Strikes "? 

10. What is the difference between " boycott " and " black list "? 

11. Can the state or the nation control trusts? 

12. Name some important Federal laws of that time. 

13. What is the Presidential Succession Law? 

14. Describe the statue of "Liberty Enlightening the World." 



CHAPTER XLI 
NEW STATES AND TERRITORIES 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 474-485 ; Hart's Source 
Book, pp. 366-372 ; Fairbanks's Tlie Western United States. 

522. The Vanished Frontier. — As we have seen the 
settlers moving westward over the Alleghany Mountains, 
through the Ohio and Kentucky regions, through the 
Mississippi and Missouri river valleys, over the Rocky 
Mountains to the Pacific Coast, there was always a western 
frontier. There was hunting of buffalo and other large 
game, and there was fighting with Indians. When the 
pioneers took up their claiins and began farming or stock- 
raising, the buffalo disappeared, and the Indians gave their 
last battles, the ferocious Apaches being among the last 
to be subdued (1886). The frontier had vanished. 
Farmers began to build villages, factories and business 
houses came, and the villages grew into towns and cities. 
Good public lands were scarce, and many had not obtained 
farms. So when Oklahoma, a part of Indian Territory, 
was thrown open to settlement, there was a wild rush across 
the border to grab the good lands (April 22, 1889). The 
settlement was so quickly accomplished that the next year 
saw the creation of Oklahoma Territory. 

523. Six New States. — The older western territories 
had long been asking for admission as states. There was 
no question like the balance of slavery power to be con- 
sidered, but Congress was slow to act on such requests. 

21 481 



482 United States History for Schools 



However, in 1889, one Enabling Act was passed by Con- 
gress to admit four new states. Dakota Territory was 
divided into North and South Dakota, and the other two 
states were Montana and Washington. The next year 
(1890) Idaho and Wyoming were admitted, making a total 
of forty-four states. 

524. Centennial of the Constitution. — Philadelphia had 
celebrated the hundredth anniversary of the framing of the 

Constitution ( 1 887), but the cen- 
tennial of beginning govern- 
ment under the Constitution was 
celebrated in New York (1889), 
where Washington had taken 
the oath as first President 
(§253). There was a grand 
naval parade and a military re- 
view by the new President, Ben- 
jamin Harrison, and this was 
followed by a fine procession 
representing the trades and in- 
dustries. This, like the many 
exhibitions held in the country, reflected the great progress 
made by the nation since the time when Washington was 
President. 

525. The Pan-American Congress. — In the year of the 
Constitutional Centennial (1889) the United States invited 
all the republics of Mexico, Central and South America 
to send delegates for a conference at Washington City. 
The Greek word Pan means all, so that word was used in 
the name of this conference — Pan-American Congress. 
The idea was something like the Panama Congress of 
sixty -three years before (§ 341). The two main objects of 




Benjamin Harrison. 



New States and Territories 



483 




the Pan-Ameri- 
can Congress 
were to improve 
business rela- 
tions by better 
understandings 
and by reciproc- 
ity treaties and 
to urge the re- 
publics to settle 
their disputes by 
arbitration in- 
stead of war. 
Several other 
such congresses 
have since been 
held. Out of 
these plans has 
come the Bureau 
of American Re- 
publics at Wash- 
ington, for which 
Andrew C a r- 
negie has erect- 
ed a beautiful 
home called the 
" American Pal 
ace of Peace." 
One example of 
the growing idea 

of arbitration in South America is the treaty between the 
republics of Chile and Argentina (1903). Those two 




Statue of Christ in the Andes. 



484 United States History for Schools 

republics have placed on their boundary line in the lofty 
Andes a large statue called " Christ of the Andes." On 
the pedestal are engraved these words : " Sooner shall these 
mountains crumble into dust, than Argentines and Chihans 
break the peace which at the feet of Christ the Redeemer 
they have sworn to maintain." 

526. New Pension Bill (1890). — The United States as 
a nation stands for liberty ; it ought also to be the leading 
nation in advocating peace. It has been slow to go to 
war, and has always been generous during and after its 
wars. No nation has been so generous to its defenders 
as has this republic toward the veterans of the Civil War. 
The Pension Law (1890) increased the sums paid to the 
injured soldiers and sailors until the total amounted to more 
than a hundred million dollars a year. 

527. The McKinley Tariff (1890).— The tariff was the main 
issue in the election of 1888. The Democrats favored a 
tariff for revenue only, while the Republicans favored a high 
protective tariff. The Republicans won, and Congressman 
McKinley, chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means, 
had his name given to the new tariff law, which fact helped 
to make him President afterwards. In the years immedi- 
ately following the new law's enactment there were succes- 
sions of " good times," " hard times," celebrations and 
failures. 

528. Centennial of the Patent Office (1891). — The nation 
has always prided itself on its large supply of Yankee me- 
chanical genius. A good time to call the world's attention 
to the abundance of American inventive talent was the 
centennial of the United States Patent Office. The first 
patent granted (1790) was for a process of making potash 
for the manufacture of soap. In the hundred years that 



New States and Territories 



485 




Thomas A. Edison. 



followed the office had issued more than four hundred and 
fifty thousand patents. Just a bare list of the titles of 
those patents would fill several good-sized volumes and 
would also show a wonderful variety of inventions. Some 
of the important ones have already 
been mentioned. Among others 
were those to make travel safer and 
more comfortable, like the palace 
sleeping and dining cars, the West- 
inghouse air-brake, automatic elec- 
tric signals, the interlocking safety 
switch, the automatic car coupler, 
the vestibule train, steel steamers 
with water-tight bulkheads and 
twin screws, new and more powerful 
engines, and the electric searchlight. 

Agriculture was helped by the self-binding reaper and 
harvester and the easily made fences of plain and barbed 
wire. Electricity was applied to a great number of use- 
ful machines. Many 
inventions were made 
first for pleasure, and 
afterwards grew into im- 
portance for business as 
well as pleasure. Among 
these were the bicycle 
and the "horseless car- 
riage." 

529. Columbian Exposition (1893). — While the centen- 
nial of the Patent Office was being celebrated, the nation 
and the forty-four states were preparing to exhibit the results 
of all those inventions and of other forms of progress in 




Bicycle. 



486 United States History for Schools 



an enormous exposition at Chicago. It was to commemorate 
the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America 




AUTOMOlilLK. 



by Columbus, and therefore was named the Cohmibian Ex- 
position. Nearly every nation on earth was represented, 
and it was in every sense a " World's Fair." Nearly twenty- 
seven millions of people visited the exhibition. 




Main Building of the Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, i 



530. Political Change. — The President who "opened" 
the Columbian Exposition was Grover Cleveland. He was 



New States and Territories 487 

the only American President whose two terms were sepa- 
rated by the term of another President. Many of the states 
had adopted (1892) the Australian Ballot Law, by which 
the voter could receive an officially printed ballot and go 
into a booth to prepare it in secret. Before that the 
"bosses" could watch and see that their "men" voted 
as they were told, and employers could send agents to 
spy on the voting of their laborers. But this great law to 
protect each man's secret ballot was not the cause of Mr, 
Cleveland's second election. The Democrats had kept up 
their campaign on the "tariff for revenue only " (§ 527), 
and it was on that issue that the election turned. The 
people were growing dissatisfied with the workings of the 
high protective tariff. One of the first things done by the 
new administration was to prepare a new and lower tariff 
law, which was known as the Wilson Tariff Bill. 

531. Panic of 1893. — Right in the midst of the joy over 
the great Columbian Exposition the country was afflicted 
with another panic or season of " hard times." As before, 
banks and business houses failed ; thousands of unemployed 
formed " bread lines " to receive food from the charitable. 
Distress was widespread in other countries as well as in 
the United States. One development of this panic was 
the " Coxey Army." A horse dealer named Coxey started 
to lead an "army " from Ohio to the national capital (1894) 
to demand relief for the unemployed. Similar " armies " 
marched from the Pacific coast and Texas. They begged 
or stole bread, and in some cases captured railroad trains 
to help them on their way. The " armies " disbanded with- 
out accomplishing their objects. 

532. Silver Laws. — President Cleveland was courageous. 
In his first term he had vetoed hundreds of bills which he 



488 United States History for Schools 

thought were against the interests of the people. He now- 
thought that the coinage laws needed attention, and he 
called a special session of Congress (1893) to amend those 
laws. In the former panic (1873) Congress had stopped 
the coinage of silver money (§504). Five years later 
(1878) the Bland Silver Bill was passed over the veto of 
President Hayes. It made silver money a legal tender for 
debts, and directed the government mints to coin from two 
million to four million silver dollars each month. It was 
still thought that there was not enough money in circulation, 
and the Sherman Silver Act (1890) required the Secretary 
of the Treasury to buy four million dollars' worth of silver bul- 
lion each month, and pay for it with Treasury notes or paper 
money having legal tender quality, and being redeemable in 
coin. In 1893 the Director of the Mint reported that the 
greatly increased production of silver had caused it to decrease 
in value. The special session of Congress called by President 
Cleveland repealed the purchase clause of the Sherman 
Law, thus stopping the government's buying the four mil- 
lion dollars' worth of bullion each month. This made the 
silver question still more prominent as a political issue. 

533. Civil Service Reform. — President Cleveland was a 
strong friend of civil service reform. He added thou- 
sands of offices to the hsts which should thereafter be filled 
by competitive examinations. It was a brave and high- 
minded act, for the distribution of those offices was counted 
a strong factor in helping to keep a party in power. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. How was it seen that the American frontier had vanished ? 

2. How was the centennial of the Constitution celebrated ? 

3. What is the Pan-American Congress ? 



New States and Territories 489 

4. Describe some American patents. 

5. What was the Cokimbian Exposition ? 

6. Describe the Panic of 1893. 

7. What did Congress do with silver in 1893 ? 

8. How did President Cleveland act toward civil service reform ? 



CHAPTER XLII 

BROADER VIEWS 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 485-494; encyclope- 
dia articles on Bering Sea Arbitration, Hawaii, Venezuela Arbitration, 
Forest Reservations. 

534. The Bering Sea Arbitration (1893). — There were a 
number of events in President Cleveland's second term which 
gave the nation broader views by bringing it into closer con- 
tact with outside powers. One of these was the Bering Sea 
case. When we purchased from Russia (1867) the terri- 
tory of Alaska (§486), we acquired as part of Russian Amer- 
ica the Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea. Those islands con- 
tain the remarkable " rookeries," or breeding grounds, of 
the fur-bearing seals. The government leased to a company 
the privilege of hunting seals there under certain restrictions. 
But the mother seals would leave the young on the islands 
and swim miles away for food. Foreign hunters or " poach- 
ers " would kill those mother seals and there was danger 
that the entire herd would be wiped out. The United 
States arrested a number of those foreign hunters, and 
brought the case to a settlement. It was left for decision 
to a commission of seven men chosen by the United States, 
Great Britain, France, Italy, and Norway and Sweden. 
The decision was that the United States did not own and 
could not control the whole of Bering Sea ; but the other 
nations would cooperate with the United States in pro- 
tecting the seals from destruction. 

490 




(The different Scales used should 




be noted with particular care.) 



eOfiMAYdc 60.|ll.r 



Broader Views 491 



535. The Republic of Hawaii Created (1894). — The 

Hawaiian Islands lie at the " Cross-Roads of the Pacific." 
They were discovered by Captain James Cook (1778) and 
named Sandwich Islands in honor of the Earl of Sandwich ; 
but later the native name of Hawaii was restored. Ameri- 
can missionaries settled there (1820), and in time the 
American influence became strong. Most of the trade of 
the islands was with America. The native Queen was de- 
posed (January, 1893), and a provisional government sent 
commissioners to Washington, asking that the islands be 
annexed to the United States. President Harrison sent to 
the Senate a treaty of annexation, but before the Senate 
could act upon it President Harrison's term expired. 
President Cleveland was opposed to annexation. He with- 
drew the treaty from the Senate, and sent a new Minister 
to Hawaii, requesting that the Queen be restored to the 
throne. The provisional government not only refused to 
restore the Queen, but went farther, proclaiming the 
Republic of Hawaii (July 4, 1894). President Cleveland 
later recognized Hawaii as an independent republic. 

536. Venezuela and the Monroe Doctrine. — Great Britain 
and Venezuela had been disputing for many years over the 
boundary of British Guiana. Generally speaking, the peo- 
ple of the United States knew or cared but little about 
that boundary dispute in South America ; but they were 
suddenly startled into a deep interest in the subject by 
President Cleveland's message to Congress (1895). The 
President told about the long-standing dispute, and said 
that Great Britain had declined the offer of the United 
States to settle the dispute. It seemed as though Great 
Britain was about to violate the Monroe Doctrine. The 
President's message implied war if that violation occurred. 



49 2 United States History for Schools 



Congress gave the President power to ascertain the true 
boundary. This boldness surprised Great Britain, and that 
nation agreed to arbitrate the dispute. The decision (1899) 
gave British Guiana most of the lands in question, but the 
portion given to Venezuela contained the gold mines that 
had helped cause the dispute. 

537. Presidential Election of 1896. — Politicians declared 
that the panic and " hard times " were caused by the 
Democrats and their low tariff law. This attracted atten- 
tion to William McKinley, whose 
name was attached to the last 
high protective tariff bill (§ 527). 
The Republicans nominated him 
at the head of their ticket, and 
promised the workingmen a new 
high tariff bill and a "full dinner 
pail " if he became President. 
But the tariff was only one of 
the issues. The other related to 
silver. Many people believed 
that the " hard times " were 
caused by the lack of enough 
money as a circulating medium, 
and that the times were made 
worse by the repeal of the Silver Purchase Law (§ 532). 
The Republicans declared against the free coinage of silver 
except on agreement with the leading nations of the world. 
The Democrats adopted a platform favoring a " tariff for 
revenue only" and also favoring the free coinage of silver 
at the legal ratio of sixteen to one, " without waiting for 
the aid or consent of any other nation." They nominated 
for President William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska. This 




William McKinley. 



Broader Views 



493 



nomination was indorsed by the Populist party, which 
believed in government ownership of railroads and tele- 
graph lines. Some Democrats who did not believe in the 
free silver platform nominated a separate ticket. The con- 
test was between Mr. McKinley and Mr. Bryan, and was 
one of the most spirited ever 
seen in the country. Mr. Mc- 
Kinley was elected. 

Another Western state had 
its first chance to vote for a 
President in this election. Utah 
had been admitted to the Union 
(January, 1896) as the forty- 
fifth state. 

538. Forest Reserves. — Just 
before his term of office ended, 
President Cleveland celebrated 
Washington's Birthday (Feb- 
ruary 22, 1897) by launching 
the government permanently 

into a new and extensive line of business. He issued a 
proclamation creating thirteen forest reserves. President 
Harrison had proclaimed a number of such reserves after 
the law was enacted (1891) providing for them ; but this 
new proclamation made it clear that the government would 
begin to save and manage most of the remaining forest 
lands within the public domain. In a similar way the gov- 
ernment has set aside as " Playgrounds for the Nation " 
magnificent national parks containing the Yellowstone 
Valley, the Yosemite Valley, Mount Rainier, and the Cali- 
fornia Big Tree Groves, as well as the Olympic Mountain 
Range, in the state of Washington, which is a " national 
monument." 




William Jennings Bryan. 



494 United States History for Schools 

539. New Tariff and Increased Business. — The Republi- 
cans kept faith by enacting the Dingley Bill as the promised 
high protective tariff law. It levied duties on wool and 
certain other materials which the Democratic tariff law had 
admitted free. American merchants enjoyed an enormous 
increase in the business of shipping goods to other coun- 
tries. In the year 1898 more than five hundred million 
dollars' worth of American goods were expor':ed. That 
same year witnessed a great stampede to Alaska following 
the discovery of rich gold fields in that territory. 

540. New State Constitutions in the South. — The white 
people of the South, wishing to get stronger control of 
their state governments, amended their constitutions or 
adopted new ones, embodying provisions that voters must 
be able to read a section of the Constitution and to pay a 
certain amount of taxes. These and other provisions are 
intended to prevent the uneducated negroes from control- 
ling the elections. 

541. Greater American Cities. — Of all the growth of 
states, of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, railroad build- 
ing, and commerce, none has surpassed the wonderful growth 
of American cities. It was not uncommon for cities to double 
or even quadruple their population from one census period 
to another. The largest of these cities, the metropolis of 
the republic, is New York. On New Year's Day, 1898, 
the new charter of " Greater New York" went into operation. 
With its population of three and one half milHons it then 
became the largest city in the world except London. As 
these cities are still growing rapidly, it is plain that one of 
the greatest problems before the American people is that of 
the clean and properly governed city. Professor Ely of the 
University of Wisconsin has said the watchword should 



Broader Views 



495 



be : " The city, a well-ordered household." There is no 
higher call for the patriot than to work for better city 
government. 

542. City Sanitation and Conveniences. — As the cities 
o-rew, there came numerous conveniences. Traffic arrange- 




FLATIRiiN r.lll.lM 



^A " Skyscraper"). 



ments are necessary in large cities. The old horse 
cars gaVe way to cable and electric car lines, and in the 
larger centers there were built elevated and subway lines 



496 United States History for Schools 

to relieve the crowded streets. Soon those lines reached 
beyond the city boundaries, and developed thousands of 
suburban home settlements. The invention of the passen- 
ger elevator made it possible to erect larger hotels and very 
tall business blocks called " skyscrapers." These buildings, 
as well as humbler homes, were supplied with telephones, 
gas, electric lights, water, and in some cases hot water and 
steam heat. Beginning about the time of the Centennial 
Exhibition, there developed the profession of sanitary en- 
gineering, and there began a more general use of scientific 
plumbing in houses, not only for water and gas, but for sew- 
age as well. It became the duty of city governments to 
insist upon sanitary conditions in and about the homes as 
well as in the streets and alleys. For the added health 
and pleasure of the people cities provided parks, play- 
grounds, and in many cases free bathing facilities. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. What was the result of the Bering Sea Arbitration? 

2. How was the RepubHc of Hawaii created? 

3. How did President Cleveland apply the Monroe Doctrine to 
Venezuela's dispute with Great Britain ? 

4. What was the issue, who were the principal candidates, and what 
was the result in the presidential election of 1896? 

5. What is a forest reserve or national forest? 

6. How have the Southern states remodeled their constitutions? 

7. How have American cities become great problems? 

8. How has city life been improved? 

CHRONOLOGY 

1869 . . May 10. First transcontinental railroad completed. 

Knights of Labor organized. 

1870 . . Weather Bureau established. 

1871 , . Treaty of Washington, arbitrations. 

Expansion of the Dominion of Canada, 



Broader Views 497 



1873 . . Coining silver money stopped ; panic. 

1874 . . Natural gas discovered in Pennsylvania. 

Eads's bridge at St. Louis completed. 

1875 . . Resumption of specie payment. 

1876 . . Centennial Exposition. 

Colorado admitted to the Union. 

1877 . . March 4. Hayes inaugurated President. 

Fall of the "Carpet Baggers." 
Railroad strike at Pittsburg. 
1 88 1 . . March 4. Garfield inaugurated President. 

1883 . . Civil Service Reform Act. 

Letter postage reduced to two cents. 
Suspension bridge completed. 
New navy begun. 

1884 . . Cotton Centennial at New Orleans. 

1885 . . March 4. Cleveland inaugurated President. 

1886 . . Statue of Liberty in New York harbor. 

"Year of Strikes." 

American Federation of Labor organized. 

Presidential Succession Law. 

1887 . . Interstate Commerce Commission created. 

1888 . . United States Department of Labor created. 

Chinese Exclusion law. 

1889 . . March 4. Benjamin Harrison inaugurated President. 

Pan-American Congress. 

North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington 
admitted to the Union. 

1890 . . New pension law. 

Idaho and Wyoming admitted to the Union. 
McKinley Tariff Law. 

1891 . . Centennial of the Patent Office. 
1893 . . Revolution in Hawaii. 

March 4. Cleveland inaugurated President. 

Columbian Exposition in Chicago. 

Bering Sea Arbitration. 
1895 • • Monroe Doctrine enforced in Venezuela boundary dispute. 
1897 . . Large forest reserves created. 

March 4. McKinley inaugurated President. 
2 K 



VIII 

The United States a Greater World Power 

CHAPTER XLIII 

SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 497-508; Hart's 
Source Book, pp. 373-390. 

Home Readings. — Lodge's War with Spain ; Roosevelt's Rough Riders. 

543. The Trouble in Cuba. — In beginning a study of 
the Spanish-American War it is well to recall that soon 
after the United States had purchased F'lorida (18 19) 
(§ 321), the Monroe Doctrine (§ 331) was announced 
(1823), showing the attitude assumed by the United States 
in defense of the new republics formed by Spain's 
revolted colonies in Mexico, Central America, and South 
America. That reduced Spain's American possessions 
to Cuba and Porto Rico. Both islands are near the 
United States, and on several occasions the question of 
acquiring Cuba was agitated in this country. Especially 
was this question made prominent by the " Ostend 
Manifesto " (§ 400), when three American ministers in 
Europe advised the acquisition of Cuba by purchase or by 
force. In the light of such history it would be natural for 
Spain and other nations to watch with suspicion any action 
taken by the United States in regard to Cuba. On the 
other hand, the United States had duties to perform. 

498 



Spanish-American War 499 

Cuba was a neighbor. Many American citizens had 
business interests there. Those citizens were entitled to 
protection in their just and fair rights. 

Spain had not been wise in her colonial policy. She 
gave her colonists no part in their own government, but 
sent rulers from Spain who grew wealthy from the trade 
and taxes of the colonists. That was why the many colonies 
revolted, and that was why Cuba tried so often to get her 
independence. In 1895 the Cubans began another revolt, 
which proved to be the last one. They adopted the watch- 
word " Cuba Libre ! " (** Cuba Free ! "), and determined to 
die or be independent. Spain sent an army of two hun- 
dred thousand men under the cruel General Weyler, who 
drove the country people into camps and burned their 
houses to starve them into submission. While suffering 
with hunger, they still cried, " Cuba Libre ! " 

544. American Kindness Suspected. — Congress acted 
upon President McKinley's recommendation, and appro- 
priated fifty thousand dollars for the relief of suffering in 
Cuba, and an equal sum was raised by kind-hearted Ameri- 
can citizens. The famous president of the Red Cross Soci- 
ety, Miss Clara Barton, though nearly seventy years of age, 
led members of that society to Cuba on errands of mercy. 
All this angered Spain, as she claimed that her Cuban 
" rebels " would surrender if it were not for the sympathy 
and help extended to them by Americans. However, the 
American sympathy compelled Spain to change her cruel 
General Weyler for the milder General Blanco. Though 
conditions were improved, the Cubans did not cease to 
fight and shout, " Cuba Libre ! " 

545. The Approach of War. — The American govern- 
ment did not want a war with Spain. It was not prepared 



500 United States History for Schools 

for war. The navy did not have coal or ammunition 
enough for even a short campaign. President McKinley 
did all in his power to maintain peace. But the American 
people were aflame with indignation over accounts of 
butchery and inhuman treatment of people at our very 
threshold. In the midst of such a feeling there occurred 
a terrible catastrophe. The United States had sent the 
battleship Maine to Havana harbor to watch over and 
protect American interests there. Without a word of warn- 
ing that vessel was blown up (February 15, 1898), and two 
hundred and sixty-six American officers and sailors were 
killed in the explosion. The American people, angry 
before, were now clamorous for war. It was not surely 
known who was responsible for the explosion, but a board 
of inquiry decided that it was caused by a submarine mine. 
It was firmly, though perhaps wrongly, believed that 
Spanish officers were responsible. War alone could atone 
for such a crime ; still President McKinley sought ways 
for a peaceful settlement. 

546. War declared (April, 1898). — President McKinley 
sent a lengthy message to Congress (April ii, 1898) review- 
ing the history of troubles in Cuba. In speaking of the 
Spanish war in Cuba at that time he said he had already 
told Congress : " It was not civilized warfare ; it was ex- 
termination. The only peace it could beget was that of 
the wilderness and the grave." And again : "In the name 
of humanity, in the name of civilization, in behalf of en- 
dangered American interests which give us the right and 
the duty to speak and act, the war in Cuba must stop." 
He then left the matter in the hands of Congress, saying: 
" I have exhausted every effort to relieve the intolerable 
condition of affairs which is at our doors." 



Spanish-American War 



501 



Congress in a joint resolution (April 20, 1898) declared 
that Cuba was free, that Spain must withdraw her troops, 
that the United States would take charge long enough 
to restore order, when the island would be given over 
to the Cubans to devise their own form of government; 
and the President was authorized to use the entire land 
and naval forces of the United States to accomplish those 
objects. This was practically a declaration of war. Two 
days later the President proclaimed a blockade of the ports 
on the northern coast of Cuba. He also called for two hun- 
dred thousand volunteers, and 
sent telegraphic orders to Com- 
modore George Dewey at Hong- 
kong. There was enthusiastic 
response to the call for troops. 
Every state asked for the chance 
to send more regiments than had 
been apportioned to it. In the 
same generous way did the 
people respond when it came to 
a question of money. The gov- 
ernment wanted to borrow two 
hundred million dollars to pay 
the war expenses, and offered only three per cent interest 
per year. The people came forward with seven times the 
amount asked. 

547. Remarkable Battle of Manila Bay (May i, 1898). — 
Spain had a fleet of eleven warships in the Philippine 
Islands. If in the war that fleet should sail for the Pacific 
Coast of America, there was little to stop a wholesale de- 
struction of such cities as San Francisco and Seattle. 
Commodore Dewey, an officer who had been with Admiral 




Georce Dewey. 



502 United States History for Schools 

Farragut at New Orleans in the Civil War (§ 443), had 
six warships and a messenger boat. On receiving tele- 
graphic orders he sailed from Hongkong for Manila, and 
there destroyed the entire Spanish fleet. The Spaniards 
were brave. They fought until their boats' sank, and 
they lost twelve hundred men, killed and wounded. The 
Americans did not lose a ship nor a man. Only eight 
were wounded, and those not seriously. In three days 
Commodore Dewey had taken the naval station of Cavite 
and destroyed the Spanish fortifications. He had estab- 
lished hospitals, and was taking care of two hundred 
and fifty of the Spanish sick and wounded. "At this 
unsurpassed achievement," said President McKinley to 
Congress, " the great heart of our nation throbs, not 
with boasting or with greed of conquest, but with deep 
gratitude that this triumph has come in a just cause and 
that by the grace of God an effective step has thus been 
taken toward the attainment of the wished-for peace." 
Farragut was given the rank of Admiral after the Civil 
War, and Dewey was given the same highest rank in the 
navy after Manila. Troops were sent under General Mer- 
ritt to cooperate with Admiral Dewey. After a combined 
attack the city of Manila was taken (August 13, 1898). 
548. Cervera's Fleet " Bottled." — The fear in the Pacific 
seaports vanished after Dewey's victory, but there arose 
great alarm in the Atlantic seaports when Admiral Cer- 
vera left the Cape Verde Islands with his Spanish fleet 
headed for American waters. No one knew whether he 
would try to relieve Havana to save Cuba or attack 
American ports. He chose Santiago on the southeastern 
coast of Cuba as a safe hiding place from which to plan 
his campaign. This harbor had a very narrow mouth, 



Spanish-American War 503 

easily protected, and was further protected by surrounding 
highlands. Commodore Schley, with his " flying squad- 
ron," discovered the fleet and blockaded the harbor. 
Cervera's fleet was said to be "bottled," but as it might 
escape at night it was decided to put a " cork " in the 
" bottle " by sinking the old coal ship Merrimac across 
the narrow channel. When volunteers were called 
for, Lieutenant Richmond P. Hobson and seven brave 
sailors responded. It was a bold deed to steam into the 
jaws of the Spanish forts and fleet. One of the Spanish 
shots broke the rudder of the Merrimac, and when she 
was sunk she lay lengthwise and only partiaUy closed 
the channel. The volunteer crew escaped in a small 
boat, and became prisoners in the hands of the Spaniards, 
who gave them the kind treatment brave men deserved. 

549. The Blockade and the Land Battles of Santiago. — 
Captain Sampson arrived off Santiago with an additional 
fleet. He had chief command. One of his battleships 
was the Oregon, which was built on the Pacific Coast and 
made the long voyage of thirteen thousand miles around 
Cape Horn and reported for duty without losing an hour for 
repairs. While the blockade was maintained, a strong land 
force was sent to Cuba under General Shaffer. One spec- 
tacular and efficient portion of this force was the " Roosevelt 
Rough Riders," recruited from cowboys of the West and 
college men of the East. There was hard fighting through 
tropical forests. Heat and disease would kill more Ameri- 
cans than Spanish bullets, so it was decided to leave 
behind the heavy artillery rather than drag the big guns 
over the miserable roads and pony paths. The fortifica- 
tions must be taken by assault. The results were the two 
battles up the steep heights of El Caney and San Juan 



504 United States History for Schools 

(July I, 2, 1898). Tangles of barbed wire and all other 
obstacles were overcome, and the Spanish troops were 
driven into the city. The Americans, victorious on the 
hills, could take their time to bring up large guns for use 
against the Spanish fleet in the harbor below. 

550. Sea Battle of Santiago. — Captain Sampson went 
down the coast for consultation with General Sh after. 
During his absence he left Commodore Schley in command 
of the blockading fleet, with orders to watch the harbor 
closely. Admiral Cervera decided not to risk his fleet's 
capture from land attacks, and surprised the American fleet 
by steaming out of the harbor (July 3, 1898). The 
Spanish fleet of six warships had no chance whatever 
against the American fleet of eleven superior ships. In 
a few hours of battle at full speed the Spanish vessels 
were destroyed, with a loss of six hundred men killed and 
thirteen hundred captured. The Americans lost one man 
killed, and one was severely wounded. No serious harm 
was done to a single one of the American ships. When 
the burned hulks of the Spanish cruisers that had been 
run ashore were examined, the scorched bodies of gunners 
were found at their stations, where they had died fighting 
with superb courage. Sampson and Schley were made 
rear admirals after the victory of Santiago. 

551. Surrender of the Spanish Army. — Soon after the 
destruction of Cervera's fleet, Santiago surrendered with 
an army of twenty-two thousand men. The war was ended 
in that eastern part of Cuba. General Miles led an army 
into Porto Rico, and was preparing to end the conquest of 
that island when news reached him that a peace was 
being negotiated. 

552. Conquest of Guam. — Lying east of the Philippines 



Spanish-American War 



505 



is another archipelago, called Ladrones. The principal 
island of the group is Guam. It was captured (June 21, 
1898) by an American fleet on its way to the Phihppines. 
It is reported that when the Americans fired a shot the 
Spanish commander of the fort sent word that he was 
much obliged for the salute, but he had no powder with 
which to return it. He was informed it was not a salute 
but war, when, of course he surrendered. 

553. Annexation of Hawaii. — After the republic of 
Hawaii had been formed (1894) on the refusal of the 




II II 1 1 \icr.' 



United States to annex the islands (§ 535), the hope was 
still held that they would some day become a part of the 
larger republic. As the war advanced, the importance of 
those islands was recognized as never before. Congress 
adopted a resolution of annexation (July 7, 1898), and at 
Honolulu was seen the interesting ceremony of hauling 
down the flag of the little republic and raising in its place 
the Stars and Stripes (August 12). Two years later the 
islands were organized into the territory of Hawaii, 
having a legislature and local government of its own and a 
delegate to represent it in Congress. 



5o6 United States History for Schools 

554. Treaty of Peace. — One of the first acts of war is 
the withdrawal of each nation's minister from the capital 
of the other. Spain therefore had no minister at Wash- 
ington to begin negotiations for peace. But the Minister 
of France agreed to represent Spain. The first draft of a 
treaty was signed (August 12) just the day before the 
city of Manila was captured (§ 546). The news, with 
orders to cease fighting, was telegraphed to all armies 
and fleets. Each of the two nations then sent five com- 
missioners to Paris, and those ten men framed the final 
treaty of peace (December 10, 1898). There were three 
principal points in that treaty: — 

(i) Spain gave up all claim to Cuba. 

(2) Spain ceded to the United States Porto Rico, the 
island of Guam, and the Philippines. 

(3) The United States agreed to pay Spain twenty 
million dollars for the Spanish government buildings in 
the Philippines. 

555. Results of the War. — Probably it will never be 
known how much the war cost Spain in men and money. 
Besides such terrible losses, Spain also lost her last foot of 
soil in the new world she had discovered and of which she 
once owned so large a part. The United States lost about 
four hundred and thirty men killed in battle, and many 
others who died of disease. The money cost of the war 
amounted to about one hundred and thirty milhon dollars. 

By acquiring such large and widely scattered territory, 
the United States entered upon the experience of being 
a greater world power. This brought new and difficult 
problems of government, as well as grave responsibilities. 

Externally the war and its final results raised the United 
States in the esteem of all other nations. Internally the 



Spanish-American War 



507 



war revealed to the people of the United States three 
things: (i) that they faced new destinies as their country 
secured possessions "over seas"; (2) that they possessed 
marvelous strength in men and resources capable of quick 




Natives and Cattle in the Philippine Islands. 

use in time of war; (3) that the people were again thor- 
oughly united, for Union and Confederate veterans and their 
sons had rallied with enthusiasm under the one flag at the 
first sound of war. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. Why did the Cubans revolt against Spanish rule? 

2. Why was American kindness suspected? 

3. Describe the loss of the battleship Maiiw in Havana harbor. 

4. How did President McKinley strive for peace? 

5. How was war declared? 

6. Describe the battle of Manila Bay. 

7. How was Cervera's fleet " bottled " ? 

8. What was the result of the battles of Santiago on land? on sea? 

9. How was the island of Guam captured? 

10. How did the United States secure Hawaii? 

1 1. How was the treaty of peace arranged? 

12. Name some results of the war. 



CHAPTER XLIV 



THE LARGER WORLD 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 508-523; Robinson's 
Western Europe, pp. 654-687. 

Home Readings. — Egerton's Origin and Growth of EngHsh Colonies ; 
encyclopedia (later editions) articles on different nations, special his- 
tories, and magazine articles ; Grififis's America in the Far East ; 
Keinsch's World Politics, Part i. 

556. The Change to Imperialism. — The nineteenth was a 
century of nationalism; the twentieth has started as a cen- 
tury of imperialism. The United States had no emperor 

to justify the use of the 
word " imperialism," but 
the substance of the condi- 
tion is present neverthe- 
less, even if the imperial 
ruler is not. Just glance 
back over the history we 
have been studying. In 
1800 Jefferson was elected 
President. At that time 
Florida was foreign land 
and the Mississippi River 
was the western boundary. 
Pioneers were building log- 
cabin homes in the Ohio 
Valley. The century that 
followed was certainly one 
of nationalism as we ex- 




Theodore Roosevelt. 



508 



The Larger World 509 

panded to the Pacific Ocean and strengthened our govern- 
ment over the whole wide domain. In 1900 the United 
States had entered upon a new career by beginning the 
management of colonies " over seas." In this sense the 
United States had taken its place among the world powers 
at the dawn of the century of imperialism. United States 
history is only a part of world history. It is therefore well 
to glance briefly at the other nations' entry into this 
changed condition. 

557. The Awakened People. — Following the "year of 
revolutions " in Europe (1848) (§ 387) there came a period 
of reaction, and some kings sought to restore their supreme 
control. But the people had made a start toward securing 
constitutions, and the second half of the nineteenth century 
saw those nations growing great and strong in proportion 
to the powers secured by the people. Not kings, but a 
united people, make a nation. When the nations awakened 
to this fact, they discovered strength undreamed of before. 

558. Unity and Expansion of Germany. — Prussia and 
Austria were rivals for the leadership of the German states. 
Napoleon had united most of these in the Confederation of 
the Rhine. The king of Prussia became president of that 
Confederation, and as such led the other German kings 
and princes with their armies in the war against France 
known as the Franco-Prussian War ( 1870). While these 
armies were besieging Paris (1871) the German kings and 
princes held a famous meeting in the Palace of Versailles, 
and there proclaimed the king of Prussia as Emperor 
William I. of united Germany. For many years German 
citizens had been emigrating to other countries. They 
were lost to Germany, as they did not form German colo- 
nies. About a dozen years after obtaining unity, Germany 



5IO United States History for Schools 

changed her policy (1884). She acquired control in Africa 
of territories larger in extent than Germany herself. She 
also acquired territories in the Pacific-Ocean, such as a part 
of New Guinea, rechristened Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, and 
the islands of New Britain and New Ireland, rechristened 
Bismarck Archipelago. When Spain was defeated in the 
Spanish-American War, Germany bought from her the 
Caroline and Ladrone islands (1899). During the cen- 
tury of nationalism Germany had developed wonderfully 
in manufacturing and commerce, in statesmanship, phi- 
losophy, and literature. The German nation was abun- 
dantly equipped to take a prominent place among the 
world powers in the century of imperialism. 

559. Ambitions of France. — We have seen how France 
attempted to change the republic of Mexico into an em- 
pire (§§ 435 and 484). Emperor Napoleon III. was ambi- 
tious to increase the rank of France among the nations. 
Though failing in Mexico, he secured a firm foothold in 
Indo-China ( 1 862),and later the French territory was greatly 
increased along the borders of Siam. France had controlled 
Algeria in northern Africa from an earlier time (1830), and, 
after losing valuable lands in the Franco-Prussian War, 
there developed a desire to repair the loss by new colonies 
in Africa. The territories adjacent to Algeria were seized, 
and also vast areas elsewhere in Africa, including that part 
of the Sahara Desert lying between Algeria and the Sene- 
gal River. France also acquired large groups of islands 
in the southern Pacific Ocean. One of the most impor- 
tant of these islands is New Caledonia. After having 
passed through many exciting changes, France is now a 
republic, and, like the United States, enters the new cen- 
tury with the substance of imperialism without the form of 
empire. 



The Larger World rn 



560. The World-wide British Empire. — England was the 
"mother country" to the United States. Frequent refer- 
ence has been made to the growth of the British Empire, 
which constitutes one of the greatest themes in world his- 
tory. The many parts of the empire do not bear the 
same relations to the crown, nor were those parts acquired 
in the same way or at the same time. A record of the 
expansion of the kingdom of England into the British 
Empire would comprise much of world history for a long 
period. It will only be necessary here to trace briefly 
some of the chief events. It will be recalled that in North 
America a few provinces expanded into the large and pros- 
perous Dominion of Canada (§ 498). At the time that 
Canada was conquered from the French (1763) Great 
Britain also strengthened her hold on India. That re- 
gion was governed by the British East India Company 
until the terrible mutiny of native troops (1857), after 
which the government was placed in the hands of 'a sec- 
retary of state in London. The control was more com- 
plete when Queen Victoria received the additional crown 
of Empress of India (1877). 

Great Britain started to use the newly discovered Aus- 
tralia as a place to send prisoners ; but the great land soon 
attracted free colonists, who organized separate provinces. 
These flourished until, following Canada's example, they 
combined in forming another large British nation 'called 
the Commonwealth of Australia (1901). Near Australia, 
and throughout the Southern Pacific, are many islands 
under British control. 

^ During the troubles growing out of the French Revolu- 
tion, Great Britain took under her protection the Dutch 
colonies at the southern end of Africa ; and when Napoleon 



512 United States History for Schools 

abdicated (1814) those Cape colonies were ceded to Great 
Britain by the Netherlands. The Dutch colonists moved 
farther inland, and organized the Orange Free State and the 
Transvaal Republic. The discovery of rich gold mines 
(1885) destroyed the peace of the Dutch. Foreigners 
rushed in, and war resulted between the Dutch and the 
British (1899).* For more than two years the unequal 
struggle continued. The Boer armies were defeated, and 
the colonies are now British. Another great federated 
nation, like Canada and Australia, is destined to flourish 
in South Africa. The dream of a "Cape-to-Cairo" railroad 
will yet be realized. Egypt is nominally an independent 
nation under the protection of Great Britain ; but there seems 
little doubt that British protection in this case is evolving 
into British dominion. 

Taking into account the nations and colonies under the 
British flag, that great empire now has more citizens or sub- 
jects than were ever before under a single sovereign in all 
the history of the world. Surprising unity of feeling was 
shown during the war in South Africa, when enthusiastic 
citizen soldiers in British Columbia, New Zealand, Aus- 
tralia, and other distant lands offered their services to the 
empire. The largest political idea now before the British 
people is the federation of the empire with an imperial 
Parliament having representatives from all the British 
nations and colonies. 

561. Creating the Nation of Italy. — At the middle of 
the nineteenth century Italy was badly divided. Some 
provinces were called papal states and were ruled by the 
Pope; some thought themselves independent; and some were 
protected or controlled by France or Austria. Just one, 
Sardinia, had a constitutional ruler, King Victor Emanuel 



The Larger World 513 

II. In that king's name the new Italy arose. Just as 
Chancellor von Bismarck was the nation maker in Germany, 
so Count Cavour was the essential constructive statesman 
of Italy. Cavour is reported to have said : " I cannot make 
a sonnet, but I can make Italy." The king and his states- 
men were assisted by the enthusiastic services of Gari- 
baldi, the dashing leader of fighting men. Watching the 
changes in Europe, these men added one Italian province 
after another to Sardinia. They longed to regain the 
ancient city of Rome for their capital. Still watching 
Europe, they were prompt to act when the Franco-Prussian 
War broke out (1870), and French troops were withdrawn 
from Rome. The city was entered by the Italian armies, 
and the Pope's temporal power, or rule over the papal states, 
was declared at an end. Italy, though a little late, was also 
ambitious for colonies in Africa. She got a foothold on 
the shore of the Red Sea, and sought to enlarge it by es- 
tablishing a protectorate over Abyssinia. To this King 
Menelik objected, and his troops drove the Italian army 
back with great loss (1896). 

562. Austria-Hungary. — In losing to Prussia the leader- 
ship of the German states (§ 558) Austria-Hungary has 
taken its place as a great power of Europe ; but at the same 
time it lost the chance of being a leading world power in 
the century of imperialism. It is a dual monarchy, with 
two capitals, Vienna and Budapest, and two parliaments. 
Through these parliaments the people have had a part-in 
the government since receiving their constitutions (1867). 

563. Russia's Slow Enlightenment. — The huge country 
of Russia extends along the northern parts of Europe and 
Asia. The greatest Russian sovereign, Peter the Great 
(1672-1724), once declared : " It is not land we want, but 



514 United States History for Schools 

water." That is the best key to Russian history. In Czar 
Peter's time conquests were made on the Baltic, and the 
new capital, St. Petersburg, was founded. The Russians 
had adopted the Greek Catholic Church as their national 
church. In seeking an outlet to the sea the port most de- 
sired was Constantinople, the ancient home of the Greek 
Church. That coveted city would have been wrested from 
Turkey (1853-1856) if Great Britain, France, and Sardinia 
had not rushed to the Sultan's help and checked the Rus- 
sians at Crimea. Following this war, one of the greatest 
events in Russian history occurred, when forty-six million 
serfs were emancipated(i858-i86i). Slowly but earnestly 
the people have been reaching out for greater liberties. 

To develop the thinly peopled regions of Siberia the 
Russian government built the great railroad to the Pacific 
Ocean. Japan was compelled to give up part of her con- 
quests from China (1895), and Port Arthur fell into the 
hands of Russia. This was a fine harbor, free from ice 
the year round. Russia had at last reahzed the great 
Czar's wish for some good outlet to the sea. But Russia 
lost that harbor and much more in the war with Japan 
(1904-1905). To pay the costs of that disastrous war the 
heavy taxes were increased. Discontent spread. It looked 
Hke a general revolt. The Czar promised his people a 
national parliament. If the Russian people get control of 
their government, as have the people of the other 
European nations, by transforming it into a constitutional 
monarchy, the world will look for rapid revelation of 
power. There are many elements of strength there — 
intellectual, artistic, and economic. 

564. Greed for Territory. — David Livingstone, the mis- 
sionary, lost his life exploring Africa (1873), and his 



The Larger World 515 

work was continued by Henry M. Stanley (i 874-1 877). 
"Through the Dark Continent" was the title Stanley gave 
his book of travels. In less than thirty years from the 
time of those explorations the whole of the " Dark Conti- 
nent " was divided up among the European powers. There 
was a season of what James Bryce called " earth hunger." 
Every unclaimed island was seized. The tropics had been 
avoided as places for colonizing. Their day had come, for 
allthe earth was needed, when imperialism was the motive 
of the nations. China, with her more than four, hundred 
millions of people, was weakly governed. Why not treat 
China like Africa ? 

565. Sudden Rise of Japan. — In planning to make them- 
selves masters of China the European nations were taking 
little heed of one small island kingdom, — Japan, — whose 
doors had been opened by America ( § 399) some forty 
years before. All knew that China was weak, but only a 
few knew that Japan had grown strong. After leading a 
secluded life for more than two centuries, Japan had 
become a nation in the true sense. While Great Britain, 
Germany, France, Austria, and Italy were growing more 
united, and increasing in strength by giving their peoples 
greater liberties and better constitutions, Japan was doing 
exactly the same. Japanese statesmen believed their 
island empire could become dominant in the Orient just 
as Great Britain was dominant in Europe. Therefore those 
statesmen did not relish the idea of European control in 
China. Japan could not fight Europe, but she could strike 
a blow nearer home that would fortify her own position. 
Japan insisted that the empire of Korea be independent. 
China objected, claiming Korea was really a sub-kingdom 
of China. Japan startled the world with her successful 



5i6 United States History for Schools 

war against China ( 1 894-1 895). Three ambitious European 
powers — ^ Russia, Germany, and France — then stepped 
in and compelled Japan to give up her Chinese conquests 
and accept money payments from China. Those three 
European powers were then joined by Great Britain, and 
the four nations wrung from China certain long-time leases 
to valuable portions of Chinese territory. Russia's portion 
consisted of Port Arthur and a strip through Manchuria 
containing a railroad from Port Arthur northward to Siberia 
(§ 563). Russia promised that her occupation would only 
be temporary ; but she spread her troops out on both sides 
of the railroad, and it looked as though she would occupy 
Korea. One Japanese writer said : " Korea lies like a 
dagger ever pointed toward the very heart of Japan." 
Once in the hands of Russia, that "dagger" w^ould be still 
more dangerous to Japan. The island empire was nervous, 
watchful, and patriotic. Japan hoped for an Oriental Mon- 
roe Doctrine. 

566. Revolt in China. — China was humiliated by her 
defeat at the hands of Japan, but she was more alarmed 
by the evident intention of European nations to become 
masters of parts if not all of China. A society called 
" Boxers " raised a revolt ( 1900) against foreigners. Mission- 
aries were killed, and the representatives of foreign nations 
were besieged by a mob in the capital city — Peking, 
Every nation interested — Russia, France, Great Britain, 
United States, Germany, and Japan — rushed forward the 
nearest troops available. They captured and sacked the 
Chinese capital and rescued the foreign representatives and 
the surviving missionaries. China was compelled to make 
apologies and to pay heavy indemnities to the other nations. 
Years afterwards the United States gave back the money 
received from China, that it might be used for education. 



The Larger World 



517 



567. The " Open Door " Policy. — In reporting to Con- 
gress the troubles growing out of the " Boxer " uprising 
President McKinley spoke of "the opening of China to 
the equal commerce of all the world " (December 3, 
1900). For more than two years the American govern- 
ment through its President and its Secretary of State, 
John Hay, had been insisting that Great Britain, Russia, 
Germany, and France should join the United States in 
a declaration favoring the 
"Open Door" policy in China. 
A wave of anger swept over 
those interested countries when 
the "Boxer" revolt was made 
known ; but the United States 
clung firmly to the policy, and 
was especially insistent with 
Russia while that nation was 
trying to tighten her exclusive 
grip on Manchuria. All the 
interested nations agreed to the 
policy. Russia alone was trying 
to evade it. 

568. The Russo-Japanese War 
the " Open Door " policy was in the interest of fair treat- 
ment for all nations, and it was especially in the interest of 
China, as it would stop further slicing into the territories of 
that empire. While such work was going on, Japan made 
a leap forward by securing a treaty of alliance with Great 
Britain (1902). Japan still hoped for the Oriental Monroe 
Doctrine, with herself as its protector. She became more 
watchful, especially of Russia in Manchuria and Korea, and 
she vigilantly drilled her soldiers and sailors. The war 




John Hay. 
America's work for 



5i8 United States History for Schools 



with Russia broke out early in 1904, and lasted nearly two 
years. The results were a series of most astonishing vic- 
tories for the Japanese on land and sea. On the invitation 
of President Roosevelt, envoys of the two empires met at 
Portsmouth in this country, and a treaty of peace was signed 

there (September 5, 



1905). By that 
treaty Japan regained 
Port Arthur. She 
also got the southern 
half of Saghalien 
Island and the right 
practically to control 
Korea. Such power 
and skill seem to jus- 
tify Japan's hope for 
the Oriental Monroe 
Doctrine. One other 
significant evidence 
of advance was the 
announcement, not 
long after the war, 
that the printing 
presses of China and 
Japan were working 
night and day to make school books for the children of 
China. That great country was to follow the example of 
Japan by securing enlightenment from all the world. 

569. The Palace of Peace. — Such expansion, such " earth 
hunger," such feverish equipment of fleets and armies, 
would all seem to indicate that the century of imperialism 
is to witness a terrible war of the nations. But there is 



. 


0, 




hL^ 


A 


J^l^ 


P 


l^Bfc 


A^x/;^''\:||. """-J 


^^^IP^# 1 




i^lp 


'i^ ^ 


i'l^'"^^^^^ . %, '>!^ ^ 


'm. 


{^■HK"*""^ X\l 



Admiral Togo. 



The Larger World 519 

another side to the shield. The peoples have obtained con- 
stitutions. They no longer meekly follow their war-lord 
kings, nor blindly accept the schemes of ambitious chan- 
cellors. The telegraph and the railroad, the camera and 
the printing press, have combined to give the peoples better 
understandings of themselves and of each other. They are 
learning that the interests of all are best served by peace. 
The very largeness, the imperial character, of the nations 
works to the same end. A war at any place in the world 
will now be sure to affect the interests of one or more of 
the large powers. The people of those powers desire peace, 
and will seek ways to preserve it. Tennyson had a vision 
of the end of wars when he wrote : — 

" Till the war-drum throbb'd no longer, and the battle-flags were furrd 
In the Parliament of Man, the Federation of the World." 

The fulfillment of that vision began with the Peace Con- 
ference at The Hkgue, called by Czar Nicholas II. of 
Russia (1899). That conference and the one that followed 
it (1907) have not produced a " Federation of the World," 
but they have produced a court of arbitration, and there are 
abundant indications that that court is developing into a 
splendid and enlightened substitute for war. The meetings 
are held in the magnificent " Palace of Peace," presented by 
the famous American philanthropist, Andrew Carnegie, 
who also gave the "American Palace of Peace " (§ 525) and 
the " Palace of Peace " in Central America. Earnest people 
in every country are advocating peace. Mr. Carnegie has 
given generously from his ample fortune to advance this 
work. He has invited a group of prominent Americans 
to serve as trustees for the enormous sum of ten million 
dollars, which he has given to promote the interests of 



520 United States History for Schools 

peace. Civilization is turning from the sword and the gun to 
the school and the law. 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1 . What is " imperialism " ? 

2. Have tlie people greater powers? 

3. How did Germany become an empire? 

4. Has France dominions outside of Europe? 

5. How has Great Britain become a world-wide empire? 

6. How was the nation of Italy created? 

7. Why has Austria two capitals ? 

8. Why was Russia so anxious to hold Port Arthur? 

9. How was Africa " divided " ? 

10. Describe Japan's sudden rise as a nation. 

11. What caused the revolt in China? 

12. What is the ''Open Door" policy? 

13. How was the Russo-Japanese War ended? 

14. What do we hope to come from the Palace of Peace? 



CHAPTER XLV 

NATIONAL DUTIES AND OPPORTUNITIES 

References. — Ashley's American History, pp. 525-555; Hart's 
Source Book, pp. 390-392. 

Home Readings. — Boone's Education in the United States ; Richard- 
son's American Literature ; Stedman's Poets of America. 

570. The New American Lands. — The Cubans were helped 
to organize a republican government of their own. They 
have not been wholly successful. The United States has 
had to help them out of one political tangle, and may have to 
do so again. Still they have organized good schools. The 
boys and young men of Cuba, as they attain manhood 
under free institutions, ought to give their republic a free, 
strong, and clean government. In Porto Rico the people 
were glad to become a part of the United States. They 
have been given a commission form of government, some- 
thing a little less than that in Hawaii (§ 553). They have 
a legislature of their own, and a delegate to Congress. 

The situation in the Philippines was more difficult. 
Aguinaldo, a leader of the Filipinos, had rebelled against 
the Spanish government and was in exile when the Span- 
ish-American War broke out. He then returned, and 
helped the Americans conquer Manila. He wanted to 
rule the islands, and raised a revolt against the Americans 
(1899). After much bloodshed he was captured by strat- 
egy (1900), and the native insurrection fell. The Filipinos 
also have a commission form of government, with a legis- 
lature of their own (1901), and they are allowed two dele- 

521 



522 United States History for Schools* 

gates to Congress. The United States government has 
extended much aid to these newly acquired lands in the 
shape of good schools, improved sanitary conditions, and 
greater opportunities for trade and industry. 

571. Assassination of President McKinley. — As Presi- 
dent McKinley's first term was about to end, he was 
nominated for a second term by the Republicans. The 
Democrats again nominated William Jennings Bryan, and 
the issue was again the question of the free and unhmited 
coinage of silver. A majority of the people voted for 
President McKinley and the gold standard of money. 
President McKinley was a kind and lovable man. He 
trusted the people, and dismissed the guards stationed at 
the White House to protect him. After his second in- 
auguration he visited the Pan-American Exposition in 
Buffalo, New York, and held a reception to shake hands 
with all the people. In that friendly service he was shot 
down by an anarchist who had concealed a pistol in a hand- 
kerchief tied around his hand. Anxiously the people 
prayed for his recovery, but eight days after receiving the 
wound he died (September 14, 1901). The Vice President, 
Theodore Roosevelt, took the oath of office and became 
President. 

572. The Panama Canal. — When the Spaniards first dis- 
covered that the Atlantic and Pacific oceans were sepa- 
rated by a relatively narrow strip of land at the isthmus, 
they suggested that a canal ought to be dug. Through 
the centuries that followed the suggestion was often re- 
peated. The United States made a treaty (1846) with 
New Granada (now Colombia) to secure equal and fair 
treatment in transporting freight or passengers across the 
isthmus " upon any modes of communication that now 



524 United States History for Schools 

exist, or that may be hereafter constructed." The United 
States and Great Britain made a treaty (1850) in which the 
two nations agreed to protect the neutrahty of any line of 
communication between the two oceans. The United 
States made a treaty with Nicaragua (1867) looking toward 
a land or water route across that country. Colombia 
granted (1878) a concession to Frenchmen who proposed 
to dig the Panama Canal, agreeing that it should " always 
be kept free from political influence." The French asso- 
ciation spent large sums of money on their work, and 
the United States pushed forward the plans of the Nicara- 
guan Canal. The United States and Great Britain entered 
into another agreement (1901) to safeguard the neutrality 
of the canal to be built and controlled by the United 
States. 

The French association had failed, and Congress passed 
an act authorizing the President to pay forty million dollars 
for the French dredges and machinery, and to pay for the 
work already done; but if Colombia would not grant enough 
land to secure protection for the canal, negotiations should 
be made with Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Colombia 
rejected the treaty. The people of Panama then seceded 
and formed the new Republic of Panama. Under the lead 
of the energetic President Roosevelt, our government at 
once recognized the new republic and made a treaty (1903) 
by which the United States got a strip of land ten miles 
wide across the isthmus. This will give ample room to 
build the canal and to police and protect it. In return for 
the grant the United States paid ten million dollars to 
Panama, and agreed to pay $250,000 a year, beginning 
in 191 3. After those arrangements were completed the 
United States entered upon the great work of constructing 
the canal. 



National Duties and Opportunities 525 

573. Advance of Irrigation. — The practice of irrigation 
is very ancient, even in America. Before white men 
came to this continent the natives of Mexico were using 
irrigation with success. There has come a time when the 
white men in America are reviving its use on a large scale. 
When the vast herds of buffalo were driven off the plains, 
herds of cattle took their place. The farmers built fences 
and raised grain. But there were millions of acres in the 
West covered with sagebrush or bunch grass. Some said 
those areas were only fit for homes of jack rabbits and 
coyotes. However, it was discovered that when ditches 
were dug to turn the water from creeks or rivers on to the 
land the soil was very fertile. Irrigation companies were 
organized, and many beautiful and fruitful farms were 
created in the supposed deserts of the West. Private 
capital could not do it all, for some of the sources of water 
were too expensive. Congress took up the work (1902) by 
arranging that the proceeds from the sales of public lands 
should be used to reclaim lands that were worthless with- 
out irrigation. Thousands of fine farms are being created 
in this way, and in time the government will get back all 
the money expended on these great enterprises. 

574. The New Nationalism. — Irrigation gave a new in- 
terest to the forest reserves, as they protected the sources 
of rivers in the mountains. The national forests were 
therefore increased for the double purpose of conserving 
the supply of timber and the supply of water. It was also 
determined to stop the practice of selling coal lands on the 
public domain, as had been done in the past for very low 
prices. Those lands were withdrawn, to be held until the 
nation made some better arrangement for their use. In 
the same way water power sites were withdrawn. These 



526 United States History for Schools 

new plans especially affected the West, for the lands in the 
East had long since passed into private ownership. Presi- 
dent Roosevelt believed earnestly in these new plans, which 
went by the name of " Conservation of National Resources," 
and later " The New Nationalism." To consider these and 
other measures in which the states and the nation were 




Irrigating Canal, Salt Rixkr \'\i.i 1 \, Ai i/"N\. 



jointly interested President Roosevelt invited the governors 
of all the states to meet him in a conference at the White 
House. These conferences of the governors are sometimes 
referred to as the "Third House of Congress." They are 
producing a better understanding and greater feeling of 
unity throughout the nation. 

575. Two Western Expositions. — Two expositions called 
especial attention to the wonderful development of the 



National Duties and Opportunities 527 

West through railroad building, mining, agriculture, irri- 
gation, and fruit growing. Both expositions were intended 
to celebrate the centennials of events in Western history. 
The first and larger of these was the Louisiana Purchase 
Exposition in St. Louis (1904), and the other was the Lewis 
and Clark Exposition in Portland, Oregon (1905). A third 




Grand Basin at the Louisiana Purchase Exposi i ion, si. Louis, 1904. 



exposition was held two years later (1907) at Jamestown, 
Virginia, to celebrate the three hundredth anniversary of 
the first successful English colony planted in America. 

576. Political Reforms. — - The great changes and growth 
indicated by those expositions and the development of the 
" New Nationalism " were accompanied by a number of 
political changes and reforms in the several states. Wis- 
consin led the others in working out legal plans for making 
the railroads and other large corporations bear a more just 
share of taxation. Oregon took the lead in direct legisla- 
tion, known as " the initiative and the referendum," whereby 



528 United States History for Schools 

the voters may propose laws for the legislature to adopt, or 
cast aside laws they do not want, though they had been 
passed by the legislature. Several states adopted the direct 
primary law, so the voters could nominate their candidates 
instead of leaving such work to conventions. Most of 
such laws include also an opportunity for the voters to ex- 
press a choice of United States senators to be elected later 
by the legislatures. Some progressive cities have adopted 
what is known as the " Recall," which enables them to 
call a man out of his office if he should prove unsatisfactory. 

Maine was the first prohibition state. Others have fol- 
lowed in adopting laws to prohibit the manufacture and 
sale of intoxicating drinks. Those states are Kansas, 
Georgia, Alabama, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Tennessee, 
North Carolina, and North Dakota. These have adopted 
state-wide prohibition. Still other states have adopted 
local option laws by which certain towns, cities, or portions 
of the states may adopt prohibition. Extending the 
privilege of voting so as to include women is another 
political reform that has grown steadily. There are five 
states — Wyoming, Idaho, Colorado, Utah, and Wash- 
ington — wherein woman suffrage is established by con- 
stitutions or by laws. 

577. Education, Literature, and Libraries. — Education is 
the greatest agency for promoting betterments and reforms. 
In such cases the education does not always come from 
schools, for there are the pulpits, the newspapers, the maga- 
zines, good books, and the lecture platform. But the school 
is the starting place, and in America the school has had a 
most wonderful growth. The public schools are every- 
where, and the humblest of them are now equipped with 
choice textbooks, maps, and good teachers. Almost every 



National Duties and Opportunities 529 



city is justly proud of its high school, better equipped in 
most cases than the colleges were half a century ago. The 
universities have been treated so generously by states and 
wealthy citizens who have endowed them that several of 
them have taken their places in the front ranks with the 
oldest and most famous seats of learning in the world. 
We have no national university, but the nation has 
granted public lands to support state universities, and 
gives generous support to 
the agricultural colleges 
in the various states. 

Americans love their 
pioneer workers in the 
field of literature (§ 367). 
There is now a long and 
noble list of literary 
workers, who have done 
their full share toward 
making their fellow-men 
happier and more en- 
lightened. Besides those 
already mentioned, there 
should be named such 
novehsts as W. D. How- 
ells, Henry James, and George W. Cable; such poets as 
James Whitcomb Riley and Henry Van Dyke; such histo- 
rians as John Lothrop Motley, William H. Prescott, Henry 
Adams, John Fiske, Francis Parkman, and Alfred T, 
Mahan ; such humorists as Samuel L. Clemens and Finley 
Peter Dunne ; such scientists as Asa Gray, Louis Agassiz, 
James Dwight Dana, and Simon Newcomb. Closely- 
related to literature is art, and America has had a fine Hst 



^ €^m^^ 




■^ . 




-^ 


•''?W 



Andrew Carnegie. 



530 United States History for Schools 

of sculptors, with Augustus Saint-Gaudens at the head, and 
such painters as John La Farge, Edwin A. Abbey, and 
John S. Sargent, and such architects as Richard M. Hunt, 
Henry H. Richardson, and Charles F. McKim. 

Libraries are the schools for all the people after they 
have left the ordinary schools. No land has advanced 
more rapidly than America in the building of free public 
libraries. Even small towns have their libraries and read- 
ing rooms, while larger cities have central libraries and 
numerous branches. Mr. Carnegie has poured out his mil- 
lions to give libraries to all the cities that needed them. 
The National Library of Congress has completed its new 
palatial home (1897), and has become one of the three 
largest libraries in the world. The public libraries of Bos- 
ton and New York are among the finest of their kind, and 
Columbia University, New York, has a model home for a 
university library. 

578. A Few Remarkable Inventions. — Libraries, liter- 
ature, and education were greatly aided by the invention 
of the linotype machine (perfected after 1890), by which 
an operator can sit and cast a line of type by pressing 
keys as if writing on a typewriter. The cost of print- 
ing books and newspapers was greatly reduced by that 
invention. 

The Roentgen or X-rays have enabled scientists to take 
photographs through substances. Surgeons can trace and 
find in the human body bullets or other foreign substances. 
Many lives have been saved by the use of this remarkable 
discovery. 

It was deemed wonderful when man first sent messages 
by telegraph over wires ; but now they send them through 
the air without wires by the wireless telegraph inventions 
c>f Marconi and others. 



National Duties and Opportunities 531 



Man has also conquered the air with his flying machines, 
dirigible balloons, biplanes, and monoplanes. They are 
still in the experimental stage, and are taking a large toll 
of life from those who risk 
the flights. No one can 
tell how soon they will be 
made as safe and as service- 
able as the automobile, the 
railroad, or the steamship. 

579. Great Wealth and 
Great Charities. — Along 
with inventions, the gaining 
and use of lands, and the 
development of resources 
came the accumulation of 
enormous wealth, until 
America is counted the 
richest country in the world. 
Great wealth brings great 
opportunities and respon- 
sibilities. It is pleasant to 
note how some of the great 
fortunes are being used for the public good. The spirit of 
charity, of doing good, has grown and expanded in Amer- 
ica, as have developments in other lines of human thought 
and endeavor. It ought always to be remembered that 
great wealth is by no means necessary to the exercise of 
that noble spirit. Some of the finest gifts of all are the 
small ones whose givers may be known only by their 
neighbors. But those who control the largest fortunes 
. are widely known. It is recognized that their great 
money power may be used for harm or for good, and their 




A BiRDMAN's Biplane. 



^2^ United States History for Schools 



attitude toward education and philanthropy is watched. 
Mention has been made of Mr. Carnegie's large gifts to 
the work of promoting peace (§ 569) and to the building 
of public libraries (§ 577). Besides these, his philanthro- 
pies include the Hero Fund, for the benefit of dependents 
of those losing their lives in heroic effort to save their 

fellow-men, or for the 
heroes themselves if 
only injured ; the Car- 
negie Institution of 
Washington, to encour- 
age investigation, re- 
search, and discovery ; 
and the Carnegie Foun- 
dation for the Advance- 
ment of Teaching, to 
encourage strong men 
to become college and 
university professors by 
providing retiring allow- 
ances so they need not 
worry about support in 
their old age. These 
great philanthropies 
represent gifts of about forty million dollars. John D. 
Rockefeller has given more than fifty million dollars to 
the General Education Board, about thirty millions to the 
endowment of the University of Chicago, and millions 
to other worthy causes. His latest benevolence took the 
form of a request that Congress grant a charter to create 
a board of trustees to manage his enormous fortune for 
the betterment of humanity. It is probably unknown 




John D. Rockefeller. 



National Duties and Opportunities ^^3 



how much money has been given to good causes by Mr. 
Carnegie and Mr. Rockefeller. The gifts that are known 
and pubHshed make the great totals of more than one 
hundred and seventy million dollars for each one. 

Mrs. Sage, the widow of Russell Sage, is spending an- 
other large fortune in benevolences. One of these is the 
systematic warfare against tuberculosis in New York State. 

580. Political Unrest. — The charities and benevolences 
mentioned, and many others of note throughout the coun- 
try, have not prevented the 
people from thinking deeply 
on political questions con- 
nected with the control of 
corporations and on ques- 
tions connected with the 
tariff. When President 
Roosevelt's second term was 
about to expire, the Repub- 
licans nominated as a candi- 
date to succeed him William 
Howard Taft, and the Dem- 
ocrats nominated Mr. Bryan 
for the third time. Mr. Taft 
was elected, and as the Republican platform promised a 
reduction of the tariff duties, the new President urged Con- 
gress to redeem that promise. The contest over that and 
other questions before Congress caused a division of the 
RepubHcan ranks into "Standpatters" and "Insurgents." 
Dissatisfaction spread over the country, and in the election 
(1910) the Democrats gained a majority of members of 
the House of Representatives, and a number of governors 
and legislatures in states where Republicans had held sway 




William H. Taft. 



534 United States History for Schools 

before. This unrest was shown by poUtical changes of 
some degree from Maine across the continent to Cahfornia. 

When Mr. Taft was elected President, the new state 
of Oklahoma (§ 522) had been admitted (1907) and the 
citizens there participated in the election. Two other 
Western states will experience the same change from ter- 
ritories to states by the time of the next presidential election 
(19 1 2). Congress made provision ( 191 1) for the admission 
to the Union of Arizona and New Mexico. 

One pleasant duty that devolved upon President Taft 
soon after his inauguration was to press an electric key 
that opened the gates of the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposi- 
tion, at Seattle, state of Washington (1909). The princi- 
pal result of that exhibition was to call the world's attention 
to the wealth of resources in Alaska. 

President Taft has shown a fine quality of patriotism 
by his appointments to the Supreme Court. Called upon 
to appoint four justices, he selected two Southern Demo- 
crats and two Northern Republicans, and he advanced to 
the chief justiceship a Southern Democrat already on the 
Bench. Both North and South appreciate and applaud 
such a high American spirit applied to that important 
branch of our government. 

581. Wise Counsel in a Fond Farewell. — Lincoln and 
other noble men have left the Americans a greater inherit- 
ance in character than could be represented by any other 
form of wealth. Boys and girls who are studying their 
country's history will soon take their places as citizens of 
the republic. They will do well to cherish the memory 
of the nation's great men, and, like them, seek to advance 
the welfare of the whole people. More than a hundred 
years have passed since Washington died, and yet the ex- 



National Duties and Opportunities ^^S 

ample and the words of the great First President still teach 
their lessons of devotion to the best interests of the whole 
country. Let us all refresh our feelings of true patriotism 
with these words from his Farewell Address : — 

"Citizens by birth or choice of a common country, that 
country has a right to concentrate your affections. The 
name of American, which belongs to you in your national 
capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriot- 
ism more than any appellation derived from local dis- 
criminations." 

STUDY QUESTIONS 

1. How are the new lands being governed by the United States? 

2. Describe the death of President McKinley. 

3. How did the United States undertake to build the Panama 
Canal ? 

4. What are some of the advantages of irrigation? 

5. What is meant by "New Nationalism"? 

6. How were the centennials of the Louisiana Purchase and the 
Lewis and Clark expedition celebrated? 

7. Name some of the political reforms now being tried. 

8. How are educational facilities being improved? 

9. Name some of the late American writers. 

10. How have libraries increased? 

11. Name some recent important inventions. 

12. Name some remarkable American charities. 

13. What questions have caused recent political unrest? 

14. What is our greatest inheritance as Americans? 

CHRONOLOGY 

1895 . . Revolt in Cuba. 

Japan compelled to yield Chinese conquests. 

1896 . . Utah admitted to the Union. 

1898 . . February 15. Maine blown up at Havana. 
April 20. War with Spain begun. 
May I . Battle of Manila Bay. 



536 United States History for Schools 

1898 . June 21. Conquest of Guam. 

July 1-2. Battles of Santiago. 

July 3. Cervera's fleet destroyed. 

Surrender of the Spanish army in Cuba. 

July 7. Annexation of Hawaii. 

August 12. First draft of the treaty of peace. 

1899 . . Germany acquired Pacific islands. 

Peace Conference at The Hague. 

1900 . . " Boxer " uprising in China. 

1901 . . Government of the Philippine Islands organized. 

Commonwealth of Australia. 

September 14. Vice President Roosevelt became Presi- 
dent. 
Canal treaty with Great Britain. 

1902 . . Anglo-Japanese treaty of alliance. 

United States planned large irrigation works. 

1903 . . Creation of the Republic of Panama. 

United States agreed to build Panama Canal. 

1904 . . Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis. 

1905 . . Lewis and Clark Exposition at Portland, Oregon. 
1907 . . Oklahoma admitted to the Union. 

Jamestown Exposition. 

1909 . . March 4. Taft inaugurated President. 

Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition at Seattle. 

1910 . . Wave of insurgency or new nationalism swept over the 

United States in elections. 



APPENDICES 



APPENDIX I 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



In Congress, July 4, 1776, 

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States 
OF America, 

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate 
and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God 
entitle them, ^ decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that 
they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created 
equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happi- 
ness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among 
Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, 
That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these 
ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to insti- 
tute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and 
organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely 
to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate 
that Governments long established should not be changed for light 
and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that 
mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to 
right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. 
But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably 
the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Des- 
potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, 
and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been 
the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity 
which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government, 
The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated 
injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment 
of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be 
submitted to a candid world. 

539 



540 Declaration of Independence 



He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and neces- 
sary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his Governors to pass I-aws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent 
should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected 
to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- 
fortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, fo' 
the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing 
with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others 
to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihila- 
tion, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State 
remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from 
without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States ; for 
tliat purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising 
the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. 

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his 
Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. 

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of 
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms 
of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace. Standing Armies without 
the Consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior 
to the Civil Power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his 
Assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any 
Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: 

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our Consent : 

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury : 



Declaration of Independence 541 

For transporting us beyond Seas to he tried for pretended offences: 

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring 
Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument 
fur introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies : 

p'or taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, 
and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments : 

For suspending our own Legislature, and declaring themselves in- 
vested with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Pro- 
tection and waging War against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to 
compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun 
with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most 
barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high 
Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners 
of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav- 
oured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian 
Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction 
of all ages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress 
in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered 
only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by 
every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free 
People. 

Nor have We been wanting in attention to our Brittish brethren. We 
have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to 
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over -us. We have reminded them 
of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have 
appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured 
them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, 
which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. 
We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our 
Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind. Enemies 
in War, in Peace Friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, 
in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of 
the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do> in the Nj me, and by 



54^ Declaration of Independence 



Authority of the good people of these Colonies, solemnly publish and 
declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free 
and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to 
the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and 
the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and 
that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, 
conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all 
other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. 
And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the 
Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our 
Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 

New Hampshire — Josiah Bartlett, Wm. Whipple, Matthew 
Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay — Saml. Adams, John Adams, Robt. Treat 
Paine, Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island — Step. Hopkins, William Ellery. 

ConnectictU — Roger Sherman, Sam'el Huntington, Wm. Will- 
iams, Oliver Wolcott. 

New York — Wm. Floyd, Phil. Livingston, Frans, Lewis, Lewis 
Morris, 

New Jersey — RiCHD. Stockton, Jno. Witherspoon, Fras. Hop- 
kinson, John Hart, Abra. Clark. 

Pennsylvania — RoBT. Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benja. Frank- 
lin, John Morton, Geo. Clymer, Jas. Smith, Geo. Taylor, James 
Wilson, Geo. Ross. 

Delaware — C^sar Rodney, Geo, Read, Tho. M'Kean. 

Maryland — Samuel Chase, Wm. Paca, Thos. Stone, Charles 
Carroll of Carrollton. 

Virginia — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Th. Jefferson, 
Benja. Harrison, Thos. Nelson, jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 

North Carolina — Wm. Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. 

South Carolina — Edward Rutledge, Thos. Heyward, Junr., 
Thomas Lynch, Junr., Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, Geo. Walton. ^ 

^ This arrangement of the names is made for convenience. The 
states are not mentioned in the original. 



APPENDIX II 



ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL 
UNION BETWEEN THE STATES 

To all to whom these presents shall come, we the undersigned 
delegates of the states affixed to our names, send greeting. — 
Whereas, the Delegates of the United States of America in Con- 
gress assembled did on the 15th day of November in the Year of 
our Lord, 1777, and in the Second Year of the Independence of 
America agree to certain articles of Confederation and perpetual 
Union between the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts- bay, 
Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New- York, 
New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North- 
Carolina, South-Carolina, and Georgia, in the words following, viz : 

Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the 
States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhode-Island and 
Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New- York, New-Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North-Carolina, South- 
Carolina and Georgia. 

Article I. The Stile of this confederacy shall be " The United 
States of America." 

Article II. Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom and in- 
dependence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and right, which is not 
by this confederation expressly delegated to the united states, in 
congress assembled. 

Article III. The said states hereby severally enter into a firm 
league of friendship with each other, for their common defence, 
the security of their Liberties, and their mutual and general wel- 

543 



544 Appendix II 

fare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force 
offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account 
of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever. 

Article IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friend- 
ship and intercourse among the people of the different states in 
this union, the free inhabitants of each of these states, paupers, 
vagabonds and fugitives from Justice excepted, shall be entitled 
to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several 
states ; and the people of each state shall have free ingress and 
regress to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all 
the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, 
impositions and restrictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively ; 
provided that such restriction shall not extend so far as to prevent 
the removal of property imported into any state, to any other 
state of which the owner is an inhabitant ; provided also, that no 
imposition, duties or restriction shall be laid by any state, on 
the property of the united states or either of them. 

If any person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony or other 
high misdemeanor in any state, shall flee from Justice, and be found 
in any of the united states, he shall upon demand of the Governor 
or executive power, of the state from which he fied, be delivered 
up and removed to the state having jurisdiction of his offence. 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these states to the 
records, acts and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates 
of every other state. 

Article V. For the more convenient management of the 
general interest of the united states, delegates shall be annually 
appointed in such manner as the legislature of each state shall 
direct, to meet in congress on the first Monday in November, in 
every year, with a power reserved to each state to recall its dele- 
gates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send 
others in their stead, for the remainder of the Year. 

No state shall be represented in congress by less than two nor 
by more than seven members ; and no person shall be capable of 



Appendix II 545 

being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years; 
nor shall any person being a delegate, be capable of holding any 
office under the united states, for which he, or another for his 
benefit receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind. 

Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of 
the states, and while they act as members of the committee of the 
states. 

In determining questions in the united states, in congress as- 
sembled, each state shall have one vote. 

Freedom of speech and debate in congress shall not be impeached 
or questioned in any Court, or place out of congress, and the 
members of congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests 
and imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, 
and attendance on congress, except for treason, felony or breach 
of the peace. 

Article VI. No state without the consent of the united states 
in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any 
embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance 
or treaty with any king, prince or state ; nor shall any person hold- 
ing any office of profit or trust under the united states, or any of 
them, accept of any present, emolument, oflice or title of any kind 
whatever from any king, prince, or foreign state ; nor shall the 
united states in congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title 
of nobility. 

No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, confederation 
or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the 
united states in congress assembled, specifying accurately the pur- 
poses for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it 
shall continue. 

No state shall lay any imposts or duties, which may interfere 
with any stipulations in treaties, entered into by the united states 
in congress assembled, with any king, prince or state, in pursu- 
ance of any treaties already proposed by congress, to the courts of 
France and Spain. 

2 N 



546 Appendix II 

No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any 
state, except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by 
the united states in congress assembled, for the defence of such 
state, or its trade ; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any 
state, in time of peace, except such number only, as in the judg- 
ment of the united states, in congress assembled, shall be deemed 
requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defence of such 
state ; but every state shall always keep up a well regulated and 
disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and shall 
provide and have constantly ready for use, in public stores, a due 
number of field pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, 
ammunition and camp equipage. 

No state shall engage in any war without the consent of the 
united states in congress assembled, unless such state be actually 
invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a 
resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such 
state, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, 
till the united states in congress assembled can be consulted : nor 
shall any state grant commissions to any ships or vessels of 
war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declar- 
ation of war by the united states in congress assembled, and then 
only against the kingdom or state and the subjects thereof, against 
which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as 
shall be established by the united states in congress assembled, 
unless such state be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of 
war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the 
danger shall continue, or until the united states in congress as- 
sembled shall determine otherwise. 

Article VII. When land-forces are raised by any state for 
the common defense, all officers of or under the rank of colonel, 
shall be appointed by the legislature of each state respectively 
by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such 
state shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the state 
which first made the appointment. 



Appendix II 547 

Article VIII. All charges of war, and all other expenses that 
shall be incurred for the common defence or general welfare, and 
allowed by the united states in congress assembled, shall be de- 
frayed out of the common treasury, which shall be supplied by 
the several states, in proportion to the value of all land within 
each state, granted to or surveyed for any Person, as such land 
and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated 
according to such mode as the united states in congress assembled 
shall, from time to time, direct and appoint. The taxes for paying 
that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and 
direction of the legislatures of the several states within the time 
agreed upon by the united states in congress assembled. 

Article IX. The united states in congress assembled, shall 
have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on 
peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the 6th article — 
of sending and receiving ambassadors — entering into treaties and 
alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made 
whereby the legislative power of the respective states shall be 
restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners 
as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the ex- 
portation or importation of any species of goods or commodities 
whatsoever — of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what 
captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner 
prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the united 
states shall be divided or appropriated — of granting letters of 
marque and reprisal in times of peace — appointing courts for the 
trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and es- 
tablishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in 
all cases of captures, provided that no member of congress shall 
be appointed a judge of any of the said courts. 

The united states in congress assembled shall also be the last 
resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting or 
that hereafter may arise between two or more states concerning 
boundary, jurisdiction or any other cause whatever ; which author- 



548 Appendix II 

ity shall always be exercised in the manner following. Whenever 
the legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any state 
in controversy with another shall present a petition to congress, 
stating the matter in question and praying for a hearing, notice 
thereof shall be given by order of congress to the legislative or 
executive authority of the other state in controversy, and a day 
assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, 
who shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent, commis- 
sioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determin- 
ing the matter in question ; but if they cannot agree, congress 
shall name three persons of each of the united states, and 
from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike 
out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be re- 
duced to thirteen ; and from that number not less than seven, nor 
more than nine names as congress shall direct, shall in the pres- 
ence of congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose 
names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be commis- 
sioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, 
so always as a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause 
shall agree in the determination ; and if either party shall neglect 
to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons, which 
congress shall judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to 
strike, the congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out 
of each state, and the secretary of congress shall strike in behalf 
of such party absent or refusing ; and the judgment and sentence 
of the court to be appointed, in the manner before prescribed, 
shall be final and conclusive ; and if any of the parties shall refuse 
to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend 
their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pro- 
nounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner be final 
and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other proceedings 
being in either case transmitted to congress, and lodged among 
the acts of congress for the security of the parties concerned ; pro- 
vided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgment, shall 



Appendix II 549 

take an oath to be administered by one of the judges of the su- 
preme or superior court of the state, where the cause shall be 
tried, " well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, 
according to the best of his judgment, without favour, affection, or 
hope of reward ;" provided also that no state shall be deprived of 
territory for the benefit of the united states. 

All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed 
under different grants of two or more states, whose jurisdictions 
as they may respect such lands, and the states which passed such 
grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the 
same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settle- 
ment of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to the 
congress of the united states, be finally determined as near as 
may be in the same manner as is before prescribed for deciding 
disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different states. 

The united states in congress assembled shall also have the 
sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and 
value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the 
respective states — fixing the standard of weights and measures 
throughout the United States — regulating the trade and managing 
all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the states, pro- 
vided that the legislative right of any state within its own limits 
be not infringed or violated — establishing or regulating post- 
offices from one state to another, throughout all the united states, 
and exacting such postage on the papers passing thro' the same 
as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office — ap- 
pointing all officers of the land forces, in the service of the united 
states, excepting regimental officers — appointing all the officers 
of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in 
the service of the united states — making rules for the government 
and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing 
their operations. 

The united states in congress assembled shall have authority 
to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of congress, to be 



550 Appendix II 

denominated " A Committee of the States," and to consist of one 
delegate from each state ; and to appoint such other committees 
and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general 
affairs of the united states under their direction — to appoint one 
of their number to preside, provided that no person be allowed to 
serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of 
three years ; to ascertain the necessary sums of Money to be 
raised for the service of the united states, and to appropriate and 
apply the same for defraying the public expenses — to borrow 
money, or emit bills on the credit of the united states, transmit- 
ting every half year to the respective states an account of the 
sums of money so borrowed or emitted — to build and equip a navy 
— to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisi- 
tions from each state for its quota, in proportion to the number 
of white inhabitants in such case ; which requisition shall be bind- 
ing, and thereupon the legislature of each state shall appoint the 
regimental officers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them 
in a soldier like manner, at the expense of the united states ; and 
the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped shall march 
to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the 
united states in congress assembled ; but if the united states in 
congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances judge 
proper that any state should not raise men, or should raise a 
smaller number than its quota, and that any other state should 
raise a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such extra 
number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed and equipped 
in the same manner as the quota of such state, unless the legisla- 
ture of such state shall judge that such extra number cannot be 
safely spared out of the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, 
cloath, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judge 
can be safely spared. And the officers and men so cloathed, 
armed and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and 
within the time agreed on by the united states in congress 
assembled. 



Appendix II 551 

The united states in congress assembled shall never engage 
in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, 
nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regu- 
late the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses neces- 
sary for the defence and welfare of the united states, or any of 
them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the united 
states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of ves- 
sels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or 
sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the 
army or navy, unless nine states assent to the same ; nor shall 
a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to 
day be determined, unless by the votes of a majority of the united 
states in congress assembled. 

The Congress of the united states shall have power to adjourn 
to any time within the year, and to any place within the united 
states, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration 
than the space of six months, and shall publish the Journal of their 
proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treat- 
ies, alliances or military operations, as in their judgment require 
secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each state on 
any question shall be entered on the Journal, when it is desired 
by any delegate ; and the delegates of a state, or any of them, at 
his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript of the 
said Journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay be- 
fore the legislatures of the several states. 

Article X. The committees of the states, or any nine of them, 
shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of congress, such of 
the powers of congress as the united states in congress assembled, 
by the consent of nine states, shall from time to time think 
expedient to vest them with ; provided that no power be delegated 
to the said committee, for the exercise of which, by the articles 
of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress of the 
united states assembled is requisite. 

Article XI. Canada acceding to this confederation, and join- 



^^2 Appendix II 

ing in the measures of the united states, shall be admitted into, 
and entitled to all the advantages of this union; but no other 
colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be 
agreed to by nine states. 

Article XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed and 
debts contracted by, or under the authority of congress, before 
the assembling of the united states, in pursuance of the present 
confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against 
the united states, for payment and satisfaction whereof the said 
united states, and the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged. 

Article XIII. Every state shall abide by the determinations 
of the united states in congress assembled, on all questions which 
by this confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of 
this confederation shall be inviolably observed by every state, and 
the union shall be perpetual ; nor shall any alteration at any time 
hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be 
agreed to in a congress of the united states, and be afterwards 
confirmed by the legislatures of every state. 

And Whereas it hath pleased the Great Governor of the World 
to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectfully represent 
in congress, to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify the said 
articles of confederation and perpetual union ; Know Ye that we 
the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority 
to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name 
and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely 
ratify and confirm each and every of the said articles of confedera- 
tion and perpetual union, and all and singular the matters and 
things therein contained ; And we do further solemnly plight and 
engage the faith of our respective constituents, that they shall 
abide by the determinations of the united states in congress as- 
sembled, on all questions, which by the said confederation are 
submitted to them. And that the articles thereof shall be invio- 
lably observed by the states we respectively represent, and that 
the union shall be perpetual. In witness whereof we have here- 



Appendix II 



SS3 



unto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia in the State 
of Pennsylvania the 9th Day of July in the Year of our Lord, 1778, 
and in the 3d year of the Independence of America. 



Josiah Bartlett, 

John Hancock, 
Samuel Adams, 
Elbridge Gerry, 
William Ellery, 
Henry Marchant, 

Roger Sherman, 
Samuel Huntington, 
Oliver Wolcott, 
Jas. Duane, 
Fras. Lewis, 

Jno. Witherspoon, 

Robert Morris, 
Daniel Roberdeau, 
Jona. Bayard Smith, 
Tho. M'Kean, 

Feb. 12, 1779, 
John Dickinson, 

May s, 1779, 
John Hanson, 

March ist, 1781, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
John Banister, 
Thomas Adams, 
John Penn, 

July 2ist, 1778, 
Henry Laurens, 
William Henry Drayton, 
Jno. Matthews, 
Jno. Walton, 

24th July, 1778, 



John Wentworth, Ji 

August 

8th, 1778, 
Francis Dana, 
James Lovell, 
Samuel Holton, 
John Collins, 



Titus Hosmer, 
Andrew Adam, 

William Duer, 
Gouvr. Morris, 

Nathl. Scudder, 
26th Nov., 1778, 

William Clingan, 

Joseph Reed, 
22nd July, 1778, 

Nicholas Van Dyke, 



Daniel Carroll, 
March ist, 1781, 

Jno. Harvie, 

Francis Lightfoot 
Lee, 

Corns Harnett, 

]no. Williams, 

Richd. Hutson, 

Thos. Heywood, Jun. 

Edwd. Telfair, 
Edwd. Langworthv, 



On tlie part and belialf of the 
State of New Hampshire. 

On the part and behalf of the 
State of Massachusetts-Bay. 

1 On the part and behalf of the 
> State of Rhode-Island and 
) Providence Plantations. 

( On the part and behalf of the 
( State of Connecticut. 

}On the part and behalf of the 
State of New York. 

On the part and behalf of the 
State of New Jersey. 

I On the part and behalf of the 
( State of Pennsylvania. 



On the part and behalf of the 
State of Delaware. 

I On the part and behalf of the 
( State of Maryland. 

On the part and behalf of the 
State of Virginia. 

} On the part and behalf of the 
\ State of North Carolina. 

I On the part and behalf of tlie 
^ State of South Carolina. 

/ On the part and behalf of the 
\ State of Georgia. 



APPENDIX III 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED 
STATES OF AMERICA 1 

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more per- 
fect Union, establisli Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for 
the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the 
Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 

Article. I. 

Section, i. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

Section. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, 
and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for 
Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 

No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to 
the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the 
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of 
that State in which he shall be chosen. 

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several States which may be included within this Union, according 
to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to 
the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service 
for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all 
other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three 
Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and 
1 Reprinted from the text issued by the State Department. 
554 



Appendix III ^^^ 

within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they 
shall by Law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed 
one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one 
Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of 
New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New- 
York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one,'^ Mary- 
land six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and 
Georgia three. 

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the 
Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such 
Vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other 
Officers ; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. 

Section. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed 
of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 
six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the 
first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated 
at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira- 
tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the 
sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year ; and if 
Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of 
the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make tempo- 
rary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which 
shall then fill such Vacancies. 

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the 
Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, 
and. who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for 
which he shall be chosen. 

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the 
Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President 
pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall 
exercise the Office of President of the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. 
When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice 



556 Appendix III 

shall preside : And no Person shall be convicted without the Concur- 
rence of two thirds of the Members present. 

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than 
to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any 
Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party 
convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, 
Judgment and Punishment, according to law. 

Section. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections 
for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by 
the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make 
or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such 
Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall 
by Law appoint a different Day. 

Section. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, 
Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of 
each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Number 
may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the 
Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penal- 
ties as each House may provide. 

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, Punish 
its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of 
two thirds, expel a member. 

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their 
Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of 
either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those 
Present, be entered on the Journal. 

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the 
Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any 
other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a 
Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid 
out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, 
except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from 
Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective 
Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any 
Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any 
other Place. 



Appendix III 557 

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of 
the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments 
whereof shall have been encreased during such time ; and no Person 
holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either 
House during his Continuance in Office. 

Section. 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur 
with Amendments as on other Bills. 

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the 
President of the United States ; If he approve he shall sign it, but 
if not he shall return it, with his Objections, to that House in which it 
shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their 
Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two 
thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together 
with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be 
reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall 
become a law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall 
be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting 
for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House 
respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within 
ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, 
the same shall be a^ Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless 
the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case 
it shall not be a Law. 

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
United States ; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved 
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and 
Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. 

Section. 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect 
Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for 
the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ; but all 
Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United 
States ; 

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; 



^^S Appendix III 

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian Tribes ; 

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws 
on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

To coin JMoney, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and 
fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; 

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current Coin of the United States ; 

To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; 

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing 
for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to 
their respective Writings and Discoveries ; 

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; 

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high 
Seas, and Oftences against the Law of Nations ; 

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make 
Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water ; 

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that 
Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; 

To provide and maintain a Navy ; 

To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and 
naval Forces ; 

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the 
Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasion's ; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and 
for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service 
of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appoint- 
ment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the MiUtia according 
to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over 
such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of 
particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of 
the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority 
over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the 
State in which the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, 
Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings; — And 

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by 
this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any 
Department or Officer thereof. 



Appendix III 559 

Section. 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- 
hibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not 
exceeding ten dollars for each Person. 

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may 
require it. 

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax, shall be laid, unless in Propor- 
tion to the Census or Enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. 

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or 
Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall 
Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay 
Duties in another. 

No Money shajl be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence 
of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account 
of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be pub- 
lished from time to time. 

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no 
Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, with- 
out the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present. Emolument, 
Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or for- 
eign State. 

Section. 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or 
Confederation ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; 
emit Bills of Credit ; make any thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender 
in Payment of Debts ; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law 
or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of 
Nobility. 

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Im- 
posts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely 
necessary for executing its inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all 
Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be 
for the Use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws 
shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. 

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of 
Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into 



560 Appendix III 

any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, 
or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger 
as will not admit of Delay. 

Article. II 

Section, i. The executive Power shall be vested in a President 
of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the 
Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for 
the same Term, be elected, as follows 

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of 
Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in 
the Congress : but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an 
Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed 
an Elector. 

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabit- 
ant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of 
all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which 
List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of 
the Government of the United States, directed to the President of 
the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the 
Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number 
of Votes shall be the President, if .such Number be a Majority of the 
whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one 
who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the 
House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of 
them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the 
five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the 
President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by 
States, the Representation from each State having one Vote ; A quo- 
rum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two 
thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be neces- 
sary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the 
Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be 
the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have 
equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice 
President. 



Appendix III 561 

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and 
the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the 
same throughout the United States. 

No* Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United 
States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligi- 
ble to the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to 
that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, 
and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. 

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his 
Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of 
the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the 
Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resig- 
nation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring 
what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act 
accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be 
elected. 

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a 
Compensation, which shall neither be Increased nor diminished during 
the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the fol- 
lowing Oath or Affirmation : — 

" I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my 
Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United 
States." 

Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the 
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several 
States, when called into the actual Service of the United States ; he 
may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of 
the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of 
their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and 
Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of 
Impeachment. 

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the 
Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present 
concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Con- 
sent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers 
2 o 



562 Appendix III 

and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of 
the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise pro- 
vided for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress 
may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as theythink 
proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of 
Departments. 

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may 
happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions 
which shall expire at the End of their next Session. 

Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- 
mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Considera- 
tion such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he 
may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of 
them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the 
Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall 
think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Minis- 
ters ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall 
Commission all the Officers of the United States. 

Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of 
the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, 
and Conviction of. Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misde- 
meanors. 

Article. Ill 

Section, i . The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested 
in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress 
may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of 
the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good 
Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Com- 
pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in 
Office. 

Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law 
and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United 
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Author- 
ity ; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and 
Consuls ; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction ; — to 
Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party ; — to Con- 
troversies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens 
of another State; — between Citizens of .dififerent States, — between 
Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different 



Appendix III 563 

States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, 
Citizens, or subjects. 

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- 
suls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court 
shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned 
the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and 
Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be 
by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes 
shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, 
the Trial shall l)e at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law 
have directed. 

Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only 
in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies,- giving 
them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason 
unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on 
Confession in open Court. 

The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of 
Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, 
or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. 

Article. IV 

Section, i. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to 
the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. 
And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in 
which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the 
effect thereof. 

Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other 
Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another Statej shall 
on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, 
be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the 
Crime. 

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or 
Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall 



564 Appendix III 

be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour 
may be due. 

Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into 
this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the 
Jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the Junc- 
tion of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of 
the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all need- 
ful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property 
belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall 
be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or 
of any particular State. 

Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them 
against Invasion ; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the 
Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic 
Violence. 

Article. V 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either case, 
shall be vahd to all Intents and Purposes as part of this Constitution, 
when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, 
or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other 
Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that 
no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one thousand 
eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth 
Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article ; and that no State, 
without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the 
Senate. 

Article. VI 

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the 
Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall 
be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 



Appendix III 565 

Law of the land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, 
any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the Contrary not- 
withstanding. 

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judi- 
cial Olificers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall 
be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no 
religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or 
public Trust under the United States, 

Article. VII 

The Ratiiication of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient 
for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so rati- 
fying the Same. 

THE AMENDMENTS 
I 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assem- 
ble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 

II 

A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free 
State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be 
infringed. 

Ill 

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without 
the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be 
prescribed by law. 

IV 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and eflfects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 



^66 Appendix III 



V 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous 
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in 
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in 
actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person 
be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or 
limb ; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be witness 
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without 
due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, 
without just compensation. 

VI 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses 
against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in 
his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. 

VII 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no 
fact tried by a jury shall be othenvise re-examined in any Court of the 
United States, than according to the niles of the common law. 

VIII 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

IX 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

X 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution 
nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- 
tively, or to the people. 



Appendix III 567 



XI 

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in la\v' or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or 
Subjects of any Foreign State. 

XII 

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot 
for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be 
an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in 
their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots 
the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct 
lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for 
as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists 
they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the gov- 
ernment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; 
— The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall 
then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for 
President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such 
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not 
exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House 
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. 
But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the 
representation from each state having one. vote ; a quorum for this 
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. 
And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President 
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act 
as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis- 
ability of the President. The person having the greatest number of 
votes as Vice-President, shall be Vice-President, if such number be a 
majority of the whole number of Qlectors appointed, and if no person 
have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the 
Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose 
shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a 



568 Appendix III 

majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no 
person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

XIII 

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris- 
diction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

XIV 

Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and 
of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any 
law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the 
United States : nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within 
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- 
ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when 
the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President 
and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, 
the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the 
Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such 
State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, 
or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other 
crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro- 
portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole 
number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- 
gress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, 
civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, 
having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an 
officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, 
or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con- 
stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or 



Appendix III 569 

rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies 
thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, 
remove such disability. 

Sectiox 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall 
assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or 
rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman- 
cipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall 
be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- 
priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 

XV 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
by appropriate legislation. 



570 



Appendix IV 



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Andrew Jackson . . 
Martin Van Buren . 
William H. Harrison 
John Tyler , . . , 
James K. Polk . . , 
Zachary Taylor . . 
Millard Fillmore . . 
Franklin Pierce . . 
James Buchanan . . 
Abraham Lincoln . . 
Andrew Johnson . , 
Ulysses S. Grant . . 
Rutherford B. Hayes 
James A. Garfield . . 
Chester A. Arthur 
Grover Cleveland . . 
Benjamin Harrison . 
Grover Cleveland . , 
William McKinley , 
Theodore Roosevelt . 
William H. Taft . , 


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Appendix V 



571 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES 



No. 


Name 


Admission 


Gross 
Area in 
Square 

Miles 


Population, 
Census 

OF 1910 


Repre- 
sentatives 

IN 

Congress, 
19H 


I 


Delaware .... 


Dec. 7, 


787 


2,050 


202,322 


I 


2 


Pennsylvania 






Dec. 12, 


787 


45.215 


7,665,111 


36 


3 


New Jersey . 






Dec. 18, 


787 


7,815 


2,537,167 


12 


4 


Georgia . . 






Jan. 2, 


788 


59,475 


2,609,121 


12 


5 


Connecticut . 






Jan. 9, 


788 


4,990 


1,114,756 


5 


6 


Massachusetts 






Feb. 6, 


788 


8,315 


3,366,416 


16 


7 


Maryland. 






Apr. 28, 


788 


12,210 


1,295,346 


6 


8 


South Carolina 






May 23, 


78S 


30,570 


1,515,400 


7 


9 


New Hampshire 






June 21, 


788, 


9,305 


430,572 


2 


10 


Virginia . . 






June 26, 


7S8 


42,450 


2,061,612 


10 


II 


New York . 






July 26, 


788 


49,170 


9,113,614 


43 


12 


North Carolina 






Nov. 21, 


789 


52,250 


2,206,287 


10 


13 


Rhode Island 






May 29, 


790 


1,250 


542,610 


3 


14 


Vermont . . 






Mar. 4, 


791 


9,565 


355,956 


2 


15 


Kentucky 








June I, ] 


792 


40,400 


2,289,905 


II 


16 


Tennessee 








June I, 1 


796 


42,050 


2,184,789 


10 


17 


Ohio . . 








Nov. '29, 


802 


41,060 


4,767,121 


22 


18 


Louisiana 








Apr. 30, 


812 


48,720 


1,656,388 


8 


19 


Indiana . 








Dec. II, 


816 


36*350 


2,700,876 


13 


20 


Mississipp 










Dec. 10, ] 


817 


46,810 


i,797>"4 


8 


21 


Illinois 










Dec. 3, 


818 


56,650 


5,638,591 


27 


22 


Alabama 










Dec. 14, 


819 


52,250 


2,138,093 


10 


23 


Maine . 










Mar. 15, 


820 


33,040 


742,371 


4 


24 


Missouri 










Aug. 10, 


821 


69,415 


3,293,335 


16 


25 


Arkansas 










June 15, 


836 


53,850 


1,574,449 


7 


26 


Michigan 










Jan. 26, ] 


837 


58,915 


2,810,173 


13 


27 


Florida 










Mar. 3, 


845 


58,680 


752,619 


4 


28 


Texas . 










Dec. 29, 


845 


265,780 


3,896,542 


18 


29 


Iowa . 










Dec. 28, 


846 


56,025 


2,224,771 


II 


30 


Wisconsin 








May 29, 


848 


56,040 


2,333,860 


II 


31 


California 








Sept. 9, 


850 


158,360 


2,377,549 


II 


32 


Minnesota 








May II, 


[858 


83,365 


2,075,708 


10 


33 


Oregon 








Feb. 14, 


1859 


96,030 


672,765 


3 



'il^ 



Appendix V 



STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES 
Continued 



No. 


Name 


Admission 


Gross 
Area in 
Square 

Miles 


Population, 

Census 

OF I910 


Repre- 
sentatives 

IN 

Congress, 
1911 


34 


Kansas .... 


Jan. 


29, 


1861 


82,080 


1 ,690,949 


8 


35 


West Virginia 






June 


19, 


1863 


24,780 


1,221,119 


6 


36 


Nevada . . 






Oct. 


31. 


1864 


110,700 


81,875 


I 


37 


Nebraska . . 






Mar. 


I, 


1867 


77.510 


1,192,214 


6 


38 


Colorado . . 






Aug. 


I, 


1876 


103,925 


799,024 


4 


39 


North Dakota 






Nov. 


2, 


1889 


70.795 


577,056 


3 


40 


South Dakota 






Nov. 


2, 


1S89 


77,650 


583,888 


3 


41 


Montana . . 






Nov. 


8, 


1889 


146,080 


376,053 


2 


42 


Washington 








Nov. 


II, 


1889 


69,180 


1,141,990 


5 


43 


Idaho . . 








July 


3' 


1890 


84,800 


325.594 


2 


44 


Wyoming 








July 


10, 


1890 


97,890 


145.965 


I 


45 


Utah . . 








Jan. 


4, 


1896 


84,970 


373.351 


2 


46 


Oklahoma 








Nov. 


16, 


1907 


70,057 


1,657.155 


8 


47 


New Mexico 








Aug. 


21, 


1911 


122,580 


327.301 




48 


Arizona . 

Alaska 
Hawaii . 
Porto Rico 
Philippines 
Tutuila 
Guam . . 








Aug. 


21, 


1911 


113,020 

590,884 
6,449 
3,435 

115,026 

77 
210 


204,354 

64,356 

191,909 

1,118,012 

7,635,426 

5,800 

8,661 





The dates of admission for the first thirteen states are the dates 
when those states ratified the Constitution. 

The figures of gross areas are those given by the United States 
Census and include the land and water areas within such states. 

The electoral vote of each state may be obtained by adding 
two (for the Senators) to the number of Representatives in 
Congress. 



INDEX 



Abolitionists, rise of, 364. 

Acadia, captured by the British, and 
renamed Nova Scotia, 148-149. 

Acadians, expelled from Nova Scotia, 163. 

Adams, Charles Francis, United States 
Minister at London, 428. 

Adams, John, graduate of Harvard, 134; 
proposes Washington for commander- 
in-chief, 191-192; on committee to 
draw Declaration of Independence, 
198; peace-general in Europe, 230- 
232; the first Vice President, 259; 
President, 277; makes peace with 
France, 279; appoints John Marshall 
Chief Justice, 282-283 ; death of, 334 ; 
statistics of, 570. 

Adams, John Quincy, aids purchase of 
Florida, 320; President, 332-333 ; op- 
poses "gag rules," 364-365; death of, 
365 ; statistics of, 570. 

Adams, Samuel, ^'Father of the Revolu- 
tion," 179; saved from capture, igo; 
proposes prayers by an Episcopalian, 
185. 

Admission of States, 571-572. 

Africa, Dutch lose colonies to British, 
512; division of , 5 1 4-5 1 5 . 

Agricultural Colleges, provided for, 410- 
411. 

Alabama, admitted to the Union, 321 ; 
secession of, 400; statistics of, 571. 

Alabama Case, arbitration of, 462-463. 

Alaska, Purchase of, 453 ; statistics of, 
572. 

Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, 534. 

Albany, Congress at {1754), 159. 

Alien and Sedition Laws, 280. 

Allen, Ethan, capture of Ticonderoga, 
192. 

America, visited by Norsemen, i ; Orien- 



tal claims of discovery, 3; fighting 
strength (1776), 197. 

American Colonization Society, 322. 

American Federation of Labor, rise of, 
476-477- 

American Flag, first appearance at Fort 
Stanwix, 207. 

American Literature, beginnings of, 316; 
advance in, 361-363 ; increasing work- 
ers in, 529. 

American Monarchy, threat of, 232. 

American Republics, Bureau of, 483. 

Amherst, General, capture of Montreal, 
166. 

Anarchists, riot by, 476. 

Andre, (an'dra), Major John, British spy, 
hanged, 223. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, becomes tyrant in 
New England, 119-121; put in jail, 
122. 

Annapolis Convention (1786), 249-251. 

Antietam (fin-te'tam), battle of, 425-426. 

Area of States and Territories, 571-572. 

Argentina (iir'gen-te'na), pact of peace 
with Chile, 483, 484. 

Arizona, admitted to the Union, 534 ; sta- 
tistics of, 572. 

Arkansas (ar'kan-sa'), admitted to the 
Union, 355; secession of, 409; statis- 
tics of, 571. 

Arnold, Benedict, capture of Ticonderoga, 
192 ; wounded at Quebec, 192 ; a hero 
at Saratoga, 209; treason of, 222-223; 
death of, 224. 

Art, advance in, 529-530. 

Arthur, Chester A., succeeds to presi- 
dency, 472 ; statistics of, 570. 

Articles of Confederation, put in force, 
244-245 ; conventions to amend, 249- 
252 ; end of, 255 ; text of, 543-553- 



573 



574 



Index 



Astoria, first American settlement on the 
Pacific Coast, 300 ; restored to Amer- 
icans, 311. 

Atlanta, battle of, 439-440. 

Atlantic Cable, laying of, 452-453. 

Atlantic Ocean, becomes center of Eu- 
rope's interest, 4. 

Austria-Hungary, dual monarchy of, 513. 

Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia, 76-77. 

Balboa discovers the Southern Sea, ig. 

Barbary States, war with, 286-2S8. 

Barton, Clara, takes Red Cross nurses to 
Cuba, 499. 

Beecher, Henry Ward, in Kansas strug- 
gle, 388. 

Bemis Heights, battle of, 208. 

Bennington, battle of, 208. 

Bering Sea Arbitration, 490. 

Berkeley, William, is harsh governor in 
Virginia, 73-77^ 

Bienville (byaN've'l), Celoron de, seeks to 
establish French control in Ohio, 155, 

Black Hills, gold in, 467. 

Black-list, use of, 477. 

Blockade Runners, in the Civil War, 428- 
430. 

Body of Liberties, adoption of, 95. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon, looks toward 
America, 283-284 ; becomes Emperor, 
293 ; cripples American trade, 296- 
297 ; downfall, 305 ; his " hundred 
days," 325 ; defeated at Waterloo, 326. 

Boone, Daniel, in the West, 215. 

Border States, sorrow in, 409. 

Boston, Quakers punished in, 116; siege 
of, begun, 191 ; end of siege, 194-195. 

"Boston Massacre" (1770), 180. 

"Boston Tea Party " (1773), 181. 

Boycott, use of, 477. 

Boys in the Colonies, 129-131. 

Braddock, General Edward, arrival in 
America, 160 ; defeat and death of, 162. 

Bradford, William, governor of Plym- 
outh, 62-63. 

Bragg, General, at Chattanooga, 434. 

Brooklyn Bridge, completion of, 473. 

Brown, John, in Kansas struggle, 389 ; 
his raid and death in Virginia, 395-396. 



Brown University, established, 134. 

Bryan, William Jennings, candidate for 
the presidency, 493. 

Bryant, William Cullen, 316. 

Buchanan, James, faces hard problem as 
President, 400-401 ; statistics of, 570. 

Bull Run, first battle of, 411; second 
battle of, 425. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 192-193 ; monu- 
ment built, 334-335- 

Burgoyne (bur-goin'). General John, to 
seize the Hudson, 205 ; takes Ticon- 
deroga, 207 ; surrender at Saratoga, 
208. 

Burr, Aaron, conspiracy of, 288. 

Business in the colonies, 135-137. 

Butler, Benjamin P., at battle of New 
Orleans, 421. 

Cabinet, beginning of, 245-246 ; in Con- 
stitution, 252. 

Cabot, John and Sebastian, voyages by, 
17-18. 

Cahokia (ca'ho'kia), captured by Clark, 
217. 

Calhoun, John C, becomes leader of 
States' Rights party, 339 ; favors nulli- 
fication, 346-347 ; death of, 382. 

Cahfornia, discovered and named, 31; 
gold discovered in, 374-375; adopts 
free constitution, 378-379; admitted 
to the Union, 381 ; statistics of, 571. 

Calvert, George, Lord Baltimore, secures 
grant that becomes Maryland, 78-79. 

Canada lost to France, 167 ; attacked by 
colonials, 192; Dominion organized, 

463- 

Canals, interest in, aroused, 315; com- 
pletion of the Erie Canal, 335-337. 

Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, 6. 

Carnegie, Andrew, gives Palace of Peace, 
519; building libraries, 530; great pub- 
lic gifts by, 532-533. 

Carolina, settlement of, 80-81. 

"Carpet Baggers," rule of, 454-455. 

Cartier (kar'tya'), Jacques, discovers 
Gulf of St. Lawrence, 21. 

Cass, Lewis, candidate for the presidency, 
373- 



Index 



575 



Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, 
ig6. 

Centennial Exposition, 469-470. 

Central America, republics in, 327. 

Champlain (sham'plan'), Samuel de, 
founds Quebec, 51; makes Iroquois 
enemies of the French, 51-53. 

Cerro Gordo, battle of, 372. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 431. 

Chase, Salmon P., on admission of Cali- 
fornia, 379. 

Chattanooga, battles of, 434. 

Cherry Valley, Indian massacre in, 215. 

Chicago Fire, 462. 

Chickamauga, battle of, 434. 

Chile, pact of peace with Argentina, 483, 
484. 

China, war with Japan, 515; revolt in, 
516; "open door" policy, 517. 

Chinese laborers, excluded, 478. 

Christ of the Andes, 484. 

Christian Commission, in Civil War, 

447- 

Church of England, separations from, 
57-58. 

Churches, in the colonies, 133-134; divi- 
sions in, 364. 

Cibola (si'bo lo'), Seven Cities of, search 
for, 32. 

Circular Letters, aids of the colonials, 179. 

Cities, largest ones in colonial times, 139 ; 
growth of large ones, 494 ; sanitation 
in, 495-496. 

City of Mexico, battles near, 372. 

Civil Service Reform, begun, 472; ex- 
tension under President Cleveland, 
488. 

Civil War, beginning of, 405-406 ; the 
two sides in, 407-408; advantage of 
each side, 410; the fourfold plan, 412 ; 
end of, at Appomattox, 443-444 ; 
money cost of, 447. 

Clark, George Rogers, conquers West, 
21S-218. 

Clark, Captain William, explorer, 286. 

Clay, Henry, interest in slave coloniza- 
tion scheme, 322; as "peacemaker," 
324; Secretary of State, ^S3', fights 
a duel, 338-339 ; his compromise over 



nullification, 348; candidate for Presi- 
dent, 349; his last compromise, 380- 
381 ; death of, 383. 

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 382. 

Cleveland, Grover, elected President, 
475 ; second election of, 487 ; statis- 
tics of, 570. 

Clinton, Governor DeWitt, completes 
Erie Canal, 335-336- 

Clinton, Sir Henr>', succeeds Howe as 
commander of British forces, 214; 
attempts to conquer the South, 221- 
222. 

Clive, Robert, victories in India, 162. 

Coal, use of anthracite, 359. 

Coinage, law of 1S73, 466; Sherman law, 
488. 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 438. 

College of William and Mary, second 
American college, 134. 

Colleges, in the colonies, 134-135. 

Colonial Institutions, origin of, 144. 

Colorado, admitted to the Union, 470; 
statistics of, 572. 

Columbia River, discovery of, 271. 

Columbia University, established as 
King's College, 134. 

Columbian Exposition, 485-486. 

Columbus Christopher, life of, lo-ii; 
voyages by, 11-15; death of, 15. 

Commerce, constitutional compromise 
on, 254-255 ; Interstate Commission 
of, 477-478. 

Committee of Correspondence, 189. 

Commons, British House of, attains 
power, 152. 

Concord, battle at, igo. 

Confederacy, formation of, 399-400; 
408-409. 

Confederate agents, seizure of, 412. 

Confederate navy, work of, 428-429. 

Congress, war policy of, 410; quarrel 
with the President, 451-452; repre- 
sentation in (1911), 571-572. 

Congress at .Albany (1754), 159. 

Connecticut, founding of, 95-96 ; first 
written constitution of, 96; absorbs 
colony of New Haven, 116-117; gets 
new charter, 117; statistics of, 571. 



576 



Index 



Conservation of National Resources, 525- 
526. 

Constantinople (kon-stan'ti-no'p'l), cap- 
tured by the Turks, 6. 

Constitution, framing of, 251-254; rati- 
fied, 254-255 ; clause of implied pow- 
ers, 267 ; thirteenth amendment to, 
45 1 ; fourteenth amendment to, 45 2 ; 
fifteenth amendment to, 454; centen- 
nial of, 482 ; the text, 554-569. 

Continental Congress, first, 185-186; 
second, igi-192; end of, 243-245. 

"Continental Currency," paper money, 

243- 

Conway Cabal, opposition to Washing- 
ton, 209-210. 

Cook, Captain James, geographic work 
in the Pacific, 221. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, 316. 

Cornwallis, Lord, checked in North Caro- 
lina, 224; surrenders at Yorktown, 
228. 

Coronado, discoveries north of Mexico, 
32. 

Corporations, formation of, 465 ; ex- 
tended to trusts, 477. 

Cortez, conquers Mexico, 30-31. 

Cotton, influence of, 262-263. 

Cotton Centennial, 474. 

Cotton gin, invention by Whitney, 262- 
263. 

Cotton spinning, begun in America, 261. 

Cowpens, battle of, 225. 

"Coxey Army," march of unemployed, 
487. 

Creek Indians, crushed in war, 307. 

Criminals, punishment of, 137-138. 

Cromwell, Oliver, becomes Lord Pro- 
tector of the Commonwealth of Eng- 
land, 73 ; attitude toward America, 

75- 
Crown Point, capture of, iq2. 
Crusades, influence of, 4. 
Cuba, conquered by the Spaniards, 30 ; 

proposed to seize, 385-386 ; trouble in, 

498-499 ; declared free, 501 ; aided 

by United States, 521. 
Custer, George A., killed by Indians, 

467. 



Da Gama, Vasca, first European to reach 
India by sea, 6. 

Dartmouth College, established, 134. 

Davis, Jeff^erson, in Mexican War, 373; 
elected President of the Confederate 
States, 400 ; his call for volunteers, 408. 

Dawes, William, messenger of the Revo- 
lution, I go. 

Deane, Silas, foreign agent of United 
States, 213. 

Declaration of Independence, resolution 
for, ig8; myth about, 199; the text, 
539-542. 

Delaware, becomes an independent col- 
ony, 107; statistics of, 571. 

De Soto, Ferdinand, discovers Mississippi 
River, 32-33- 

Detroit, fort built, 127; surrender of, 
302. 

De Vaca, Cabeza, journey from Florida 
to Mexico, 31-32. 

Dewey, George, at battle of New Orleans, 
42 1 ; his remarkable victory at Manila, 
501-502. 

Direct Primaries, laws for, 527-528. 

"Dorr's Rebellion," in Rhode Island, 
365-366. 

Douglas, Stephen A., proposes "squatter 
sovereignty," 386-387 ; debate with 
Lincoln, 393-395 ; defeated by Lin- 
coln, 396 ; held Lincoln's hat, 403. 

Drafts, opposition to, 435-436. 

Drake, Sir Francis, voyage along Pacific 
coast of America, 39 ; helps to destroy 
Spain's Invincible Armada, 43. 

Dred Scott Decision, result of, 390-392. 

Dutch settlers, struggle for self-govern- 
ment, 101-104. 

Eads, James B., builds a bridge and a 
jetty, 466-467. 

Education, improvements in, 528-529. 

Electoral Commission, in disputed elec- 
tion of 1876, 471. 

Emancipation, Proclamation of, 427. 

Embargo, substitute for war, 297-298. 

England, sends Cabots to New World, 
16-18; rival of France, 146-147; part 
of Great Britain, 152. 



Index 



577 



"Era of Good Feeling," 316-317. 
Ericsson, John, improves steamships, 

361 ; invents the Monitor, 415-416. 
Erie Canal, completion of, 335-336. 
Europe, Thirty Years' Peace in, 1 51-153 ; 

year of revolutions in, 375-376. 
Express, beginning of the business, 361. 

Fair Oaks, battle of, 424. 

Faneuil (Fan'el) Hall, " the Cradle of 
Liberty," 1790. 

Farragut, David G., at battle of New 
Orleans, 421-422 ; at battle of Mobile, 
440-441- 

Ferdinand, King of Spain, marries Queen 
Isabella, 7. 

P'ield, Cyrus W., lays Atlantic Cable, 452- 
453- 

"Fifty-four Forty or Fight," election 
cry, 366-367. 

Fillmore, Millard, succeeds to presidency, 
382 ; statistics of, 570. 

" Fire Eaters," rise of, 364. 

Fire Nations, Indians of New York and 
Pennsylvania, 51. 

Fitch, John, invention of the steamboat, 
289-290. 

Florida, discovery of, 19; becomes Brit- 
ish possession, 167; divided into East 
and West Provinces, 1 70 ; purchase of, 
320; admitted to the Union, 368 ; se- 
cession of, 400 ; statistics of, 571 . 

Foote, Commodore, at Forts Henry and 
Donelson, 417-418; takes Island No. 
10, 419. 

Forest Reserves, creation of, 493. 

Fort Donelson, capture of, 418. 

Fort Duquesne (du-kan'), French estab- 
lish, 158. 

Fort Henry, capture of, 418. 

Fort Necessity, Washington's only sur- 
render at, 158. 

Fort Stanwix, battle at, 207. 

Fort Sumter, in distress, 400-401 ; fired 
on, 405-406; old flag raised at, 445. 

France, rival of England, 146-147 ; awak- 
ened to American interests, 159; lost 
Canada and Louisiana, 167; Louis 
XVI becomes king, 195-196; makes 



alliance with Americans, 213-214; 
troops and fleet of, at Yorktown, 228; 
relations with, in 1783-1793, 271-273; 
incipient war with, 278-279; at war 
with Great Britain, 294 ; attitude dur- 
ing American Civil War, 413-415; 
driven out of Mexico, 452; gives 
Statue of Liberty, 479; ambitions of, 
Sio. 

Franklin, Benjamin, colonial agent at 
London, 173; on committee to draw 
Declaration of Independence, 198; 
secures alliance with France, 213-214; 
peace-general in Europe, 230-232; in -^ 
constitutional convention, 251-252. 

Franklin's plan of Union, rejected, 159. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 427-428. 

Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, 
IS3, 196. 

Fremont, General John C, in California, 
371 ; in the Ci\il War, 423. 

French, warned from Ohio country, 157. 

French and Indian War, begun, 159 ; end 
of, 162-163. 

French Revolution, 271-273. 

Frontenac (fron'te-nak). Governor of 
New France, 147-148. 

Frontier, vanishing of, 481. 

Fugitive Slave Law, defeat of, 383-384. 

Fulton, Robert, invention of his steam- 
boat, 288-290. 

Fur trade, French advances in, 53-54. 

Gage, General, begins attack on colonials, 

190. 
Garfield, James A., elected President, 

472 ; statistics of, 570. 
Garrison, William Lloyd, begins "The 

Liberator," 348-349. 
Gaspee, British revenue vessel burned by 

colonials, 180. 
Gates, General Horatio, official victor at 

Saratoga, 208; good as well as weak 

qualities of, 222. 
"Gateway of the West," 157. 
Geneva Award, 462. 
Georgia, last of southern colonies to be 

founded, 84-85 ; secession of, 400 ; 

statistics of, 571. 



2P 



578 



Index 



Germany, unity and expansion of, 509- 
510. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 432-433 ; Lin- 
coln's speech at, 435. 

Girls in the Colonies, 1 29-131. 

"Glorious Revolution," in England, 
122. 

Gold, discovered in California, 374-375. 

Goodyear, Charles, inventions in rubber, 
357-358. 

Gosnold, Bartholomew, attempts to plant 
a colony near Cape Cod, 43. 

Gout, Pitt's attack of, hastened the Revo- 
lution, 178. 

Grant, Ulysses S., in Mexican War, 373 ; 
victories at Forts Henry and Donelson, 
417-418; at Shiloh, 418-419; at 
Vicksburg, 433 ; in chief command, 
436-437; starts for Richmond, 438; 
at Appomattox, 443-444; elected 
President, 453-454; reelected, 463- 
464; death of, 475-476; statistics of, 
570. 

Gray, Captain Robert, discovers Colum- 
bia River, 271. 

Great Britain, awakened to American in- 
terests, 1 59 ; new lands and new prob- 
lems, 1 70-1 7 1 ; adopts harsh laws 
against colonies, 182-184; hires Hes- 
sians, 196-197; tardy offer of peace, 
214; si ins treaty of peace, 231; in 
Nootka incident, 270; insists on right 
of search, 297 ; causes Indian attacks, 
300; signs Treaty of Ghent, 309-310; 
Industrial Revolution in, 313-314; 
banishes Napoleon, 326; opposes Eu- 
ropean "Congresses," 327; claims to 
Oregon, 328; signs Webster- Ashbur- 
ton Treaty, 366 ; compromises Oregon 
question, 367 ; attitude during Amer- 
ican Civil War, 413-415 ; attains world- 
wide empire, 51 1-5 12. 

Great Lakes, discovery of, 124-125. 

Greeley, Horace, Lincoln's letter to, 427 ; 
defeated for presidency, 464. 

Greene, General Nathanael, success of, 
in the South, 225-226. 

Guam, conquest of, 504-505 ; statistics 
of, 572. 



Guilford Court House, battle of, 226. 
Gunpowder, affects history, 5. 

Hale, Nathan, the patriot spy, hanged, 
201. 

Hamilton, Alexander, service to America, 
249 ; moves for stronger constitution, 
250-251; helps to secure ratification 
of Constitution, 255 ; first Secretary 
of the Treasury, 259; favors a bank, 
266-267 ; killed by Aaron Burr in a 
duel, 288. 

Hancock, John, saved from capture, 190 ; 
first to sign Declaration of Independ- 
ence, 198, 

Harnden, William F., begins express busi- 
ness, 361. 

Harrison, Benjamin, President, 482; 
statistics of, 570. 

Harrison"; William Henry, fights Indians, 
300 ; sent against Detroit, 303 ; elected 
President, 354 ; statistics of, 570. 

Hartford Convention (1814), 307—308. 

Harvard College, beginning of, 93, 134. 

Havana, returned to Spain, 167. 

Hawaii (ha-wl'e). Republic of, created, 
491; annexed as a Territory, 505; 
statistics of, 572. 

Hay, John, favors "open door" policy, 
S17. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., elected President, 
470-471; ends "Carpet-Baggers'" 
rule, 471 ; statistics of, 570. 

Hayne, Robert Y., favors nullification, 
347- 

Henry, Patrick, opposes Stamp Act, 174; 
opposition to Constitution, 255. 

Hoe, Richard M., invents printing press, 
3S8. 

"Holy Alliance," formation of, 326. 

Home Life in the Colonies, 129-133. 

Homestead Law, 410. 

Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 307. 

Howe, Admiral, aids his brother General 
Howe, 200. 

Howe, Elias, invents sewing machine, 
358. 

Howe, General George Augustus, death 
of, 164. 



Index 



579 



Howe, General William, succeeds General 
Gage, 192 ; arrives at New York, 200; 
captures Philadelphia, 206-207 ; mis- 
led by Charles Lee, 210; succeeded by 
Clinton, 214. 

Hudson Bay Company, beginnings of, 
149; tries to hold Oregon, 367. 

Hudson, Henry, discovers Hudson River 
for the Dutch, 22; discovers Hudson 
Bay for the English, 23. 

Hudson River, strategic value of, igg- 
200. 

Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), seek homes in 
America, 33-34 ; many settle in South 
Carolina, 84. 

Hull, General William, surrenders De- 
troit, 302. 

Idaho, admitted to the Union, 482 ; sta- 
tistics of, 572. 

Illinois, admitted to the Union, 321 ; sta- 
tistics of, 571. 

Imperialism, change to, 508-509. 

Implied Powers, clause of, in the Consti- 
tution, 267. 

India, French conciuests returned to Brit- 
ain, 154; Clive's victories in, 162. 

Indiana, admitted to the Union, 321 ; 
statistics of, 571. 

Indian missions, success of the French in, 
54- 

Indians, culture of, 25-27 ; influence on 
settlers, 28-29; troubles with, in the 
West, 467. 

Industrial Revolution in England, 313- 

314- 

Initiative and Referendum, laws for, 527- 
528. . ■ . . 

"Insurgents," in politics, 533. 

Internal Improvements, 315. 

Interstate Commerce Commission, 477- 
478. _ 

Inventions, at the beginning of the 
nation, 261; the reaper, 355-359; 
many new machines, 485-486 ; wire- 
less telegraph and other recent devices, 
530-531- 

Invincible Armada, destruction of Spain's 
great fleet, 41-43. 



Iowa, admitted to the Union, 36S; sta- 
tistics of, 571. 

Iron, expanding use of, 359. 

Iroquois, enemies of the French, 51-53; 
remain friends with the English, 150- 
151 ; treaty with, 159. 

Irrigation, advance in, 525. 

Irving, Washington, 316. 

Isabella, Queen of Spain, marries King 
Ferdinand, 7; town named in her 
honor, 15 ; death of, 15. 

Italy, nation created, 512-513. 

Jackson, Andrew, in Tennessee, 277 ; 
fighting Indians, 307 ; wins battle of 
New Orleans, 308 ; fighting Indians in 
Florida, 320; elected President, 339- 
340 ; character of, 344-345 ; against 
nullification, 347-348; destroys the 
United States Bank, 349-350; statis- 
tics of, 570. 

Jackson, Thomas J. ("Stonewall"), in 
Mexican War, 373 ; at battle of Bull 
Run, 411 ; death of, 431. 

James II, driven from throne of England, 
106. 

Jamestown, first English colony, 45-47. 

Jamestown Exposition, 527. 

Japan, Perry's visit to, 385 ; sudden rise 
of, 515-516 ; war with Russia, 517-518. 

Jay, John, peace general in Europe, 230- 
232 ; Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 246 ; 
favors Constitution, 254; first Chief 
Justice, 250; author of treaty with 
Great Britain, 274. 

Jefferson, Thomas, wrote Declaration of 
Independence, 198; first Secretary of 
State, 259; opposes a bank, 267 ; Pres- 
ident, 283 ; plans Lewis and Clark Ex- 
pedition, 285 ; death of, 334; statistics 
of, 570. 

Johnson, Andrew, elected Vice-President, 
441-442 ; becomes President, 446 ; 
quarrel with Congress, 451-452; trial 
of, 453 ; statistics of, 570. 

Johnston, Albert Sidney, death of, 418- 
419. 

Johnston, Joseph E., before Vicksburg, 
433 ; surrender of, 444. 



58o 



Index 



Joliet (zho'lya'), Louis, travels of, 125. 
Jones, John Paul, captures the Serapis, 

220. 
Joseph II, Emperor of the Holy Roman 

Empire, 196. 

Kalb, Baron de, aids Americans, 205. 
Kansas, struggle for, 387-3S8; slavery 

lost in, 393 ; admitted to the Union, 

402; statistics of, 572. 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill, causes repeal of 

Missouri Compromise, 387. 
Kaskaskia, fort built, 127; captured by 

Clark, 217. 
Kearny, General Stephen W., seizes 

Santa Fe, 371. 
Kentucky, admitted to the Union, 276- 

277 ; race for, in Civil War, 422-423 ; 

statistics of, 571. 
Kentucky Resolutions, to protect states' 

rights, 280-281. 
Kidd, Captain William, becomes famous 

pirate, 137. 
"King Cotton," results of an invention, 

262. 
King George's War, 153-154; end of, 154. 
King Philip's Indian War, 118. 
King's Mountain, battle of, 224. 
King William's War, 147-148. 
Knights of Labor, origin of, 464 ; rivaled 

by American Federation of Labor, 476- 

477- 
Knox, General Henry, drags cannon to 

Boston, 194; first Secretary of War, 

259- 
Kosciusko, General, aids Americans, 

205. 
Ku-Klux Klan, work of, 456. 

Labor, Department of, 478. 

Labor Unions, formation of, 464 ; dis- 
approve Anarchists, 477. 

Lafayette, Marquis de, comes to aid 
America, 205 ; wounded at Brandy- 
wine, 206; confronts Cornwallis, 226- 
227 ; last visit to America, 335. 

Lake Champlain, battle of, 305-306. 

Lake Erie, battle of, 303-304. 

La Salle, explorations by, 125-127. 



Lee, Arthur, foreign agent of United 
States, 213. 

Lee, General Charles, proves treacherous 
to Washington, 200-201 ; misleads 
General Howe, 210; dismissed from 
American army, 215. 

Lee, "Light-horse Harry," takes Paulus 
Hook, 219. 

Lee, Richard Henry, moves for independ- 
ence, 198. 

Lee, Robert E., in Mexican War, 373 ; 
sent to capture John Brown, 396 ; sug- 
gested as commander-in-chief of the 
Union army, 407 ; in chief command 
of Confederate forces, 424; in battle 
of Antietam, 425-426; in battle of 
Gettysburg, 432-433 ; surrender at 
Appomattox, 443-444. 

"Leif the Lucky," discovers America, i. 

Leon (la-on'), Ponce de, discovers Flor- 
ida, 19. 

Lewis and Clark Expedition, 285-286. 

Lewis and Clark E.-tposition, 526-527. 

Lewis, Captain Meriwether, explorer, 
285. 

Lexington, Revolution begun at, 189. 

Liberty Bell, myth about, 199. 

Libraries, great growth of, 530. 

Lincoln, Abraham, debate with Douglas, 
393~39S ; elected President, 396 ; char- 
acter of, 398-399 ; journey to Washing- 
ton, 401-402 ; inaugural address, 403 ; 
his call for volunteers, 408 ; his "white 
elephants," 412; attitude toward 
slavery, 426; his proclamation of 
emancipation, 427 ; speech at Gettys- 
burg, 435 ; ridicule of, 435 ; elected for 
second term, 441 ; letter to Mrs. Bixby, 
442 ; death of, 445-446 ; statistics of, 
S70. 

Livingston, Robert R., on committee to 
draw Declaration of Independence, 
ig8 ; Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 246 ; 
negotiates purchase of Louisiana, 284. 

Local government, in colonial times, 142- 
144. 

London Company, secures lands in Amer- 
ica, 43-45- 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 434.) 



Index 



581 



Louis XIV, King of France, attitude | 

toward his American colonies, 127-128. 
Louis XVI, locksmith, King of France, 

195- 
Louisburg, captured by New Englanders, 

154- 

Louisiana, named by La Salle, 125-127; 
joined to New France by chain of forts, 
127; receives new settlers, 151 ; ceded 
by France to Spain, 167; purchased 
by the United States, 284-285 ; ad- 
mitted to the Union, 321 ; secession of, 
400; statistics of, 571. 

Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 526-527. 

Loyalists, become refugees, 194-195. 

Lundy's Lane, battle of, 305. 

Madison, James, favors Constitution, 
254-255; President, 298; interested 
in slave colonization scheme, 322; 
statistics of, 570. 

Magellan, Fernando, names Pacific 
Ocean, 19-21 ; death of, 21. 

"Magna Charta of the West," 246-247. 

Maine, founding of, 98-99; admitted to 
the Union, 324; statistics of, 571. 

Maine, battleship, destruction of, in 
Havana, 500. 

Manchuria, contest for, 517-518. 

Manhattan Island, bought from the In- 
dians, 55-56. 

Manufacturing, growth of, after War of 
1812, 313; stimulated by war tariff, 
410. 

Maria Theresa, Queen, successful in war, 
153-154, 196. 

Marion, the "Swamp Fox," 224. 

Marquette (mar'ket'), Father James, 
travels of, 125. 

Marshall, John, becomes Chief Justice, 
282-283. 

Maryland, settlement of, 78-79 ; statis- 
tics of, 571. 

Mason and Dixon Line, established, 112- 
113; extended, 322-323. 

Massachusetts, settlement of, 88-8g; 
has new church, go ; town government, 
90; political and religious troubles, 
91 ; banishes Roger Williams, 92 ; 



schools and printing, 93 ; defies the 
home government, 11 7-1 18; absorbs 
New Hampshire and Maine, 118-119; 
loses her charter, 119; under tyrant 
Andros, 119-121; gets new charter, 
122 ; statistics of, 571. 

Massasoit, Chief, makes treaty with the 
Pilgrims, 62. 

Matches, invention of, 358. 

Mayflower, voyage of the Pilgrims in, 60- 
61 ; compact in the cabin of, 62 ; re- 
turn to England, 63. 

McClellan, George B., drilling Union 
troops, 411; in the Peninsular cam- 
paign, 423-424; in battle of Antietam, 
425-426 ; candidate for the presidency, 
441. 

McCormick, Cyrus Hall, invents reaper, 
355-357- 

McDowell, General, in battle of Bull 
Run, 411 ; defends Washington, 424. 

McKinley, William, elected President, 
492-493 ; tried to prevent war with 
Spain, 500-501 ; death of, 522; statis- 
tics of, 570. 

Meade, George G., in Mexican War, 373 ; 
in battle of Gettysburg, 432. 

Mediterranean Sea, center of tne world's 
commerce, 3. 

"Men of Western Waters," 275-277. 

Merrimac, battle with the Monitor, 415- 
416. 

Mexican War, declaration of, 369 ; end 
of, 372 ; results of, 373. 

Mexico, conquest by Cortez, 30-31 ; in- 
dependence of, 327; the French in, 
415; downfall of Maximilian, 452. 

Michigan, admitted to the Union, 355 ; 
statistics of, 571. 

Minnesota, admitted to the Union, 395 ; 
statistics of, 571. 

Minute Men, 189-190. 

Missionary Ridge, battle of, 434. 

Mississippi, admitted to the Union, 321 ; 
secession of, 400; statistics of, 571. 

"Mississippi Bubble," its influence in 
America, 151. 

Mississippi River, reached by the French 
explorers, 125 ; strategic value of, 416- 



582 



Index 



417; the Eads bridge and jetty, 466- 

467. 
Missouri, admitted to the Union, 324; 

conquered by Union troops, 416; sta- 
tistics of, 571. 
Missouri Compromise, 323-324; repeal 

of, 386-387- 
Missouri Territory, created, 321. 
Mobile, capture of, 440-441. 
Modoc Indian War, 467. 
Mohammedans, invasion of Europe 

checked, 67. 
Monitor, battle with the Merrimac, 415- 

416. 
Monmouth, battle of, 215. 
Monroe, James, negotiates purchase of 

Louisiana, 284 ; President in Era of 

Good Feeling, 316-317; statistics of, 

S70. 
Monroe Doctrine, announced, 320; 

meaning of, 330 ; enforced as to Mex- 
ico, 452 ; V'enezuela case under, 491- 

492. 
Montana, admitted to the Union, 482 ; 

statistics of, 572. 
Montcalm, the French general, defeat 

and death of, 164-166. 
Monterey, battle of, 371. 
Montgomery, General, killed at Quebec, 

192. 
Montreal, surrender of, 166. 
Moors, conquest of, 6-7. 
Morgan, Daniel, a leader at Saratoga, 

209. 
Mormon religion, origin and growth, 

363-364. 
Morris, Robert, wins money victory for 

America, 203-204; Superintendent of 

Finance, 246. 
Morse, Samuel F. B., invents telegraph, 

360-361. 
Morton, Dr. William T. G., aids surgery, 

358- 
Moultrie, Colonel, honored for holding 

his fort, 195. 
Murfreesboro, battle of, 423. 

National Banks, law for, 447-448. 
National Parks, creation of, 493. 



Natural Gas, discovery of, 466. 

Navigation Laws, efforts to break by 
smuggling, 137. 

Navy, United States, beginning of, 219; 
increased in Civil War, 429-430 ; steel 
cruisers ordered, 474. 

Nebraska, statistics of, 572. 

Neutrality, Proclamation of, 273. 

Nevada, silver discovered in, 395 ; sta- 
tistics of, 572. 

New Amsterdam, growth of, 101-103 ; 
becomes New York, 105. 

New France, settlement of, 50 ; joined to 
Louisiana by chain of forts, 127; colo- 
nial government in, 127-128. 

New Hampshire, founding of, 98-99 ; 
statistics of, 571. 

New Haven, founding of, 97-98 ; united 
with Connecticut, 116-117. 

New Jersey, divided and reunited, 107- 
109; statistics of, 571. 

New Mexico, admitted to the LTnion, 534 ; 
statistics of, 572. 

New nationalism, 525-526. 

New Netherland, settlement of, 55 ; be- 
comes New York, 104-105. 

New Orleans, founding of, 127 ; battle of, 
308 ; capture of, 421. 

New Sweden, settlement of, 64 ; con- 
quered by the Dutch, 65. 

New York, becomes English colony in 
place of Dutch New Netherland, 104- 
105 ; hatred for King James IL 106- 
107 ; statistics of, 571. 

New York City, riots in, or drafts, 436. 

Nicola, Colonel Lewis, invites Washing- 
ton to become the American king, 232. 

Nootka incident, threat of war, 270-271. 

Norsemen, discover America, i . 

North CaroHna, settlement of, 81-82 ; 
secession of, 409; statistics of, 571. 

North Dakota, admitted to the Union, 
482 ; statistics of, 472. 

Nova Scotia, becomes British possession, 
148-149. 

Nullification, contest over, 346-347. 

Oglethorpe, James Edward, founds 
Georgia, 84-85. 



Index 



S^3 



Ohio, admittedjto the Union, 291; sta- 
tistics of, 571. 

Ohio country, French chain of forts in, 
iSS; conquered by Clark, 215-218. 

Oil, drilled for in Pennsylvania, 395. 

Oklahoma, rush to, 481 ; admitted to the 
Union, 535; statistics of, 572. 

"Old Ironsides," naval victory by, 301. 

"Omnibus Bill," Compromise of 1850, 
381. 

Ordinance of 1787, 246-247. 

Oregon, admitted to the Union, 395 ; 
statistics of, 571. 

Oregon country, claimed by Russia, 328; 
boundary settled, 367. 

Orient, goods from, 4-5 ; influence on 
America, 385. 

"Ostend Manifesto," relating to Cuba, 
386. 

Otis, James, opposition to Writs of Assist- 
ance, 172. 

Palace of Peace, hopes centered in, 518- 

Sig- 
Palatinate War, in Europe, 147-148. 
Palo Alto, battle of, 369-370. 
Panama Canal, Treaty, 382 ; plan for 

building, 522-524. 
Panama Congress (1826), 338-339. 
Pan-American Congress, 482-484. 
Panic, in the year 1837, 351; in 1857, 

390; in 1873, 465-466; in 1893, 487. 
Patents, centennial of office of, 485. 
Peace, Great Britain signs treaty of, 231. 
Peninsular Campaign, in Civil War, 423- 

424. 
Penn, William, founds liberal colony of 

Pennsylvania, 110-113; makes treaty 

with the Indians, 112. 
Pennsylvania, settlement of, 110-113; 

Lee's invasion of, 432; statistics of, 

571- 
Pensions, new law for, 484. 
Peciuot Indian War, 96-97. 
Perry, Commodore Matthew C, opens 

Japan, 385. 
Perry, Captain Oliver H., great victory 

by, on Lake Erie, 303-304. 
Perryville, battle of, 423. 



Pet Banks, use of, 350. 

Petersburg, siege begun, 438; end of 

siege, 443. 
Philadelphia, captured by the British, 

206-207; abandoned by British, 214- 

215- 

Philippines, government of, 521 ; sta- 
tistics of, 572. 

Pickett, George E., in Mexican War, 
373- 

Pierce, Franklin, elected President, 383 ; 
statistics of, 570. 

Pilgrims, migration to Holland, 58; 
settle in America, 59-61. 

Pirates, flourish in colonial times, 137. 

Pitt, William, in power in Great Britain, 
162; honored in the name of Pitts- 
burgh, 163; compliments Americans, 
186. 

Plains of Abraham, decisive battle on, 
165-166. 

Plymouth, landing of the Pilgrims at, 
60-61 ; colony becomes independent, 
64. 

Plymouth Company, secures lands in 
America, 43-45. 

Pocahontas, friend of the white people, 

47- 

Poland, divided, 196. 

Political parties, beginning of, 265 ; re- 
organized, 333-334 ; national conven- 
tions begun, 349; appearance of new 
parties, 389-390. 

Polk, James K., elected President, 366; 
statistics of, 570. 

Polo, Marco, travels of, 3, 4-5 ; influence 
of, 15. 

Pontiac, Indian chief, war by, 167. 

Pope Alexander VI, divides the world 
by a decree, 14. 

Pope, General, loses second battle of Bull 
Run, 425. 

Population, numbers and kinds of people 
in the colonies, 138-139; in 1790, 259; 
in 1910, 571-572. 

Porto Rico, conquered by the Spaniards, 
30 ; American conquest, 504 ; govern- 
ment of, 521 ; statistics of, 572. 

Postage rates, reduced, 474. 



584 



Index 



Presque Isle (presk'eK), French fort, 

155- 

Presidential Succession Law, 478. 

Presidents, of the United States, statis- 
tics of, 570. 

Princeton, battle of, 203. 

Princeton College, established, 134. 

Printing, influence of its invention, 5-6; 
beginning of, in Boston, 93. 

Privateers, in Civil War, 428-429. 

Proclamation of 1763, 170. 

Prohibition, laws extended, 528. 

Pulaski, General, aids Americans, 205. 

Quakers, origin of, 109; colonize in 
America, 110-113; preach in Boston, 
115-116; visit Lincoln, 427. 

Quebec, captured from the French, 166; 
Province of, created, 170; defeat of 
colonials at, 192. 

Queen Anne's War, 148-149. 

Queen Elizabeth, maintains peace be- 
tween England and Spain, 38-39. 

Queen Mary of England, marries King 
Phihp II of Spain, 37. 

Railroad, beginnings of, 337-338; great 
improvements in, 359-360; first trans- 
continental line, 460-461. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, attempts to colonize 
America, 40-41. 

Randolph, Edmund, first Attorney- 
General, 259. 

Randolph, John, of Roanoke, fights duel 
with Clay, 338-339- 

Reaper, invention of, 355-357. 

"Recall," laws for, 527-528. 

Reconstruction, policies of, 449-451. 

Reformation, influence on European and 
American history, 29-30. 

Republican party, origin of, 389. 

Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 371. 

Revere, Paul, messenger of the Revolu- 
tion, 189-190. 

Revolution, begun at Lexington and 
Concord, 1 89-1 91 ; ended at Yorktown, 
228. 

Riots, in Civil War, 435-436. 

Rhode Island, founding of, 99-100; 



Dorr's Rebellion in, 366-367 ; statis- 
tics of, 571. 

Roads, poor ones in the colonies, 136; 
to the West, 315. 

Robertson, James, in the West, 215. 

Rochambeau (ro'shaN'bo'), General, 
with French troops in the American 
Revolution, 228. 

Rockefeller, John D., great public gifts 
by, 532-533- 

Roosevelt, Theodore, succeeds to presi- 
dency, 522; end of second term, 533; 
statistics of, 570, 

Russia, claims of, in America, 328; 
treaties with, 330-331; progress of, 
513-514; war with Japan, 517-518. 

Rutgers College, estabhshed, 134. 

Ryswick (riz'wik). Treaty of, 147. 

Saga (sa'ga), of Eric the Red, first account 
of America, 2. 

Sage, Mrs. Russell, benevolences of, 533. 

St. Augustine, oldest city in the United 
States, 35. 

St. Leger, General, defeated at Fort Stan- 
wix, 207. 

Sanitary Commission, in Civil War, 447. 

San Juan (siin ho6-an') Case, arbitration 
of, 463. 

Santa Anna, Mexican general, 371. 

Santa Fe (san'ta fa'), foundingof city, 35. 

Santiago (san'te-ii'go), Spanish fleet shut 
in, 502-503 ; battles of, 503-504. 

Saratoga, one of the world's decisive bat- 
tles at, 209. 

"Scalawags," rule of, 455. 

Schools, beginning of, in Boston, 93 ; im- 
provement in, 363. 

Schurz, Car* refugee from Germany, 376. 

Schuyler (skl'ler). General, real victor at 
Saratoga, 209. 

Scott, General Winfield, in Mexican War, 
371-372; defeated for presidency, 
383 ; too old for command in Civil War, 
436. 

Seals, regulations for taking, 490. 

Secession, seven cotton states lead in, 
399-400 ; four others, 408-409. 

" Seven Days' Battles," in Civil War, 425. 



Index 



S^S 



Seven Years' War in Europe, 162. 

Sevier (se-ver'), John, in the West, 215. 

Seward, William H., against compromise, 
382 ; Lincoln's Secretary of State, 403- 
404; action in Trent affair, 412—413; 
purchase of Alaska, 453. 

Shays's Rebellion (1786), 240-241. 

Shenandoah Valley, Sheridan and Early 
in, 438-430. 

Sheridan, Philip H., in Shenandoah Val- 
ley, 438-439. 

Sherman, Roger, on committee to draw 
Declaration of Independence, 198. 

Sherman, William T., in Mexican War, 
373; at Shiloh, 418-419; at Vicksburg, 
433 ; ''from Atlanta to the Sea," 439- 
440. 

Shiloh (shi'lo), battle of, 418. 

Silver, law for coinage, 488. 

Sioux (soo), Indian War, 467. 

Slavery, constitutional compromise on, 
253-254; balance of power in Senate, 
321-322; boundaries of, 322-323; 
agitation, 364-365 ; balance of power 
restored, 36S; defeat of fugitive slave 
law, 383-384 ; effect of Dred Scott De- 
cision, 392 ; Lincoln's attitude toward, 
426-427. 

Slave Trade, law against, 291. 

Slaves, introduction of, 70 ; treatment of, 
in the colonies, 139-142. 

Smith, John, at Jamestown, 45-47 ; 
names New England, 47-49. 

Smugglers, flourish in colonial times, 137. 

Sons of Liberty, organized opposition by 
colonials, 175. 

South America, republics in, 327. 

South Carolina, settlement of, 81-83 ; se- 
cession of, 399; statistics of, 571. 

South Dakota, admitted to the Union, 
482; statistics of, 572. 

Spain, in Nootka incident, 270; control 
of the Mississippi, 276 ; loses American 
colonies, 327 ; poor policy in Cuba, 
499 ; signs treaty of peace, 506. 

Spanish-American War, begun, 500-501 ; 
ended, 506. 

Specie Payment, resumption of, 466. 

Spoils system, introduction of, 345-346. 



Spottsylvania (spot'sil-va'ni-a). Court 

House, battle of, 438. 
Stamp Act, increases opposition, 172; 

partial repeal of, 176-177. 
Stamp Act Congress (1765), 175. 
Standish, Myles, captain at Plymouth, 

62. 
"Standpatters," in politics, 533. 
Stark, General Jolm, at battle of Benning- 
ton, 208. 
States, creation of, 238; problems of, 

239-240; land claims of, 241; ratify 

Constitution, 254-255 ; statistics of, 

571-572. 
Statue of Liberty, erected, 479. 
Steamboat, invention of, 288-290. 
Steamships, improvements in, 361. 
Steuben, Baron, aids Americans, 205. 
Stevens, Isaac I., in Mexican War, 373. 
Stillwater, battle of, 208. 
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, influence of her 

book, 384-385. 
Strikes, by railroad men, 471-472; year 

of, 476. 
Stuyvesant (sti'vc-sant), Peter, governor 

of New Netherland, 103-105. 
Sullivan, General, punishes Indians, 217. 
Sumner, Senator Charles, assault upon, 

388. 

Taft, William Howard, elected President, 
533 ; appoints new members of Su- 
preme Court, 534 ; statistics of, 570. 

Taney (ta'ni), Chief Justice, renders Dred 
Scott Decision, 390-392. 

Tariff, provision for. 269-270; law of 
1816, 314; "Of Abominations," 339; 
war increase of, 410; McKinley law, 
484 ; Dingley law, 494. 

Taylor, General Zachary, in Mexican 
War, 369-371 ; elected President, 373 ; 
on admission of California, 379; death 
of, 382 ; statistics of, 570. 

Tea, tax on, retained, 180. 

Tecumseh, (te-kum'se), Indian chief, 
war of, 300 ; death of, 304. 

Telegraph, invention of, 360-361. 

Temperance, w^ork for, in America, 
340- 



586 



Index 



Tennessee, admitted to the Union, 277 ; 

secession of, 4og; statistics of, 571. 
Territories of the United States, statis- 
tics of, 572. 
Texas, admitted to the Union, 368 ; cause 

of Mexican War, 369; secession of, 

400; statistics of, 571. 
"The Critical Period," 238. 
"The Liberator," publication begun, 348. 
"The Shameful," French name for the 

Treaty of Paris, 167. 
"The Star-spangled Banner," 306. 
Thirty Years' Peace, importance of, to 

colonies, 149-151 ; in Europe, 151-153. 
Thirty Years' War, results of, in Europe, 

65-66. 
Ticonderoga, capture of, 192. 
Tilden, Samuel J., candidate for the 

presidency, 470. 
Tobacco, culture of, in Virginia, 69-70. 
Townshend Acts (1767), 178-179. 
Transportation, poor facilities of, 264;. 

improved by the steamboat, 288-290; 

canals and railroads, 336-337 ; im- 
proved railroads, 359-360; improved 

steamships, 361. 
Treasury, the Independent, law for, 351. 
Treaty of Ghent (gent) (1814), end of 

War of 181 2, 309. 
Treaty of Paris (1763), end of the Seven 

Years' War, 167. 
Treaty of Washington, arbitration, 462- 

463- 
Trent Affair, war threatened by, 412. 
Trenton, battle of, 203. 
Trusts, rise of, 477. 
Tyler, John, succeeds to the presidency, 

354; statistics of, 570. 
Tutuila (too''too-e'la), statistics of, 572. 

"Uncle Tom's Cabin," influence of, 384- 
385. 

"Underground Railroad," in slavery agi- 
tations, 384. 

Union, Franklin's plan of, rejected, 159. 

Union Pacific Railroad, completion of, 
460-461. 

United Colonies of New England, forma- 
tion of the league, 11 4-1 15. 



United States Bank, organized, 266-267 ; 
recharter of, 314; destroyed by Jack- 
son, 349-350. 

University of Pennsylvania, established, 
134- 

Utah, admitted to the Union, 493 ; sta- 
tistics of, 572. 

Utrecht (u'trekt). Treaty of, 148. 

Valley Forge, Washington's winter there, 
211. 

Van Buren, Martin, becomes Secretary 
of State, 345; President, 353; statis- 
tics of, 570. 

Venezuela (ven'e-zwe'Ia), Monroe Doc- 
trine applied to, 491-492. 

Vera Cruz, battle of, 372. 

Vermont, the Green Mountain State, 
241-242; statistics of, 571. 

Verrazano (ver'rat-sa'no), voyage to 
America for France, 21. 

Vespucius (ves-pu'shus), Americus, voy- 
ages by, 16 ; name given to new world, 
18. 

Vicksburg, battle of, 433. 

Vincennes, fort built, 127; captured by 
Clark, 217-218. 

Vinland, Norsemen's name for America, 

Virginia, new charter of, 68-69 ; slaves 
in, 70; self-government secured, 71; 
becomes a royal province, 72; cava- 
liers welcomed from England, 73 ; 
makes treaty with Cromwell, 75 ; lib- 
erties threatened in, 75-76; secession 
of, 409; statistics of, 571. 

Virginia Resolutions, to protect states' 
rights, 280. 

Voters, to whom the right was given in 
the colonies, 143. 

WaldseemuUer (val'za-miil'ler), Martin, 
suggests name of America, 18. 

Wall Street, origin of, 104. 

Walpole, Robert, establishes British Cab- 
inet, 152. 

War of Austrian Succession, in Europe, 
153-154- 

War of 1 81 2, declaration of, 300-301 ; 



Index 



587 



end of, 309; national pride resulting 
from, 312; issue settled in Civil War, 

413- 

War of the Spanish Succession, in Europe, 
148-149. 

Warren, General, death of, at Bunker 
Hill, 193- 

Washington, city of, founded, 281-282 ; 
captured by the British, 306; danger 
of capture, in Civil War, 424-425. 

Washington, George, sent with warning 
to French, 157 ; only surrender, at Fort 
Necessity, 158; accepts command of 
colonial army without salary, 192 ; de- 
feated on Long Island, 200; victories 
at Trenton and Princeton, 202-203 ; 
delays Howe at Philadelphia, 206-207 ; 
winter at Valley Forge, 211; refuses 
the American crown, 232-233; goes 
back to his farm, 235-236 ; President 
of constitutional convention, 251; the 
first President, 257 ; issues proclama- 
tion of neutrality, 273 ; faces angry 
people, 275; farewell address, 277; 
death of, 281 ; good advice to Ameri- 
cans, 534-535 ; statistics of, 570. 

Washington Territory wins San Juan 
Islands, 463 ; state admitted to the 
Union, 482 ; statistics of, 572. 

Waterloo, battle of, 326. 

Wayne, "Mad Anthony," takes Stony 
Point, 218. 

Weather Bureau, organization of, 461- 
462. 

Webster-Ashburton Treaty, signed, 366. 

Webster, Daniel, against nullification, 
346-347 ; in Compromise of 1850, 381 ; 
death of, 383. 

Webster, Noah, escort for Washington, 
193-1^4; his dictionary published, 
361-362. 

Wells, Dr. Horace, uses laughing gas in 
dentistry, 359. 

Wesley, John and Charles, visit Georgia, 
86. 

West, settlement begun, 215 ; land claims 



in, by the States, 241 ; " Magna Charta " 
of, 246-247 ; life in, after the war, 261 ; 
rapid settlement in, 319-320 ; influence 
in Jackson's time, 345; vigor of, 354- 
355- 

Westphalia (west-fa'li-a). Treaty of, 66. 

West Point, Arnold's treason at, 222. . 

West Virginia, admitted to the Union, 
409; statistics of, 572. 

Wildcat Banks, growth of, 350. 

Wilderness, battles of, 438. 

Wilkes, Charles, in Trent Affair, 412. 

William and Mary, become King and 
Queen of England, 106. 

Williams, Roger, banished from Massa- 
chusetts, 92 ; founds Rhode Island, 
99-100. 

Wilmot Proviso, meaning of, 373 ; North 
rallies round, 378. 

Winchester, battle of, 439. 

Winthrop, John, governor of Massachu- 
setts, 89. 

Wisconsin, admitted to the Union, 368; 
statistics of, 571. 

Witchcraft, the Salem craze, 138. 

Whiskey Rebellion (1794), 264. 

Whitney, Eli, invents cotton-gin, 262- 
263. 

Whittier, the "Quaker Poet," 381. 

Wolfe, General James, sent to America, 
162; death of, at the moment of vic- 
tory, 166. 

Woman Suffrage, states adopting, 528. 

Writs of Assistance, resistance to, 171- 
172. 

Wyoming, admitted to the Union, 482 ; 
statistics of, 572. 

Wyoming Valley, Indian massacre in, 215. 

X Y Z Case, attempt at bribery, 277- 
279. 

Yale College, established, 134; students 

escort Washington, 193-194. 
Yorktown, battle of, 228; news of, in 

Europe, 230. 



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original material of our history, from the voyages of Columbus to the 
Spanish-American War. The selections are judiciously made, edited, 
and annotated ; the introductory chapters for teachers are of the most 
helpful sort ; and the book is sold at so low a price that no secondary 
school in which American history is taught can find a reasonable excuse 
for not employing it as an adjunct to the regular manual." — T/ie Dial 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 FIFTH AVF.NUE, NEW YORK 
BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA 



New American Music Readers 

By FREDERICK ZUCHTMANN 

Formerly Supervisor of Music in the Public Schools of Springfield, Mass., 
and of Holyoke, Mass., assisted by Directors of Music in six large cities. 

This attractive and sticcessful series shows the familiarity of its authors 
with the conditions under which music is taught in graded schools. The 
five books comprise a complete course for class instruction in all elementary 
grades. The work is very definitely laid out for the grade teacher. 

The books are primarily singing books. The songs are bright, attractive, 
and abundant. Over six hundred selections are taken from the classics. 
The exercises are largely themes from standard composers. 



DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 

Breathing exercises and vocal drills specially directed to voice culture 
and eiiunciation. 

Rhythmic effects presented to the pupil with simplicity and thoroughness 
and established by drill and repetition. 

Songs bright, attractive, abundant, over six hundred classics. 

Thematic exercises based on themes from standard composers. 



Music Reader, Book One. For Grades I and II. 144 pages. 38 

cents net. 
This book contains beautiful rote songs, simple sight-reading songs and 
exercises, and ample material for foundation work in the teaching of 
sight-reading. 

Music Reader, Book Two. For Grades III and IV. 160 pages. 
45 cents net. 
Begins the study of keys, and proceeds through nine keys, introducing 
them gradually with plenty of drill. Develops sharp four, flat seven, 
dotted quarter and eighth, with many dictation exercises, etc. Attractive 
songs and exercises for sight-reading in one and two parts. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



NEW AMERICAN MUSIC READERS Continued 



Music Reader, Book Three. For Grades V and VI. 240 pages. 

50 cents ;/6'/. 

This book reviews preceding work, develops thr^e new keys, and 
teaches the minor scale. Songs are largely two-part and three-part, taken 
from standard works. The study of chromatics is continued. Abundant 
technical material is furnished in the form of studies and exercises. Song 
is made the basis of all work. 

Music Reader, Introductory Book Four 

A new book for unchanged voices, consisting largely of short, beautiful, 
and easy three-part songs, designed for use in the seventh grade, first half, 
and leads up to the regular study of Book IV, 

Music Reader. Book Four. For Grades VII and VIII and Assem- 
bly. 272 pages. 50 cents ud. 

This book admirably solves the problems of the music supervisor in the 
last two years of the grammar school. It contains by far the best treat- 
ment of boys' changed and changing voices. Book IV meets all the class- 
room requirements, besides containing one hundred and fifty beautiful 
songs for assembly, with accompaniments printed separately. 

Simplicity of arrangement and natural and easy movement characterize 
the alto and bass parts. Chromatic effects in these parts, difiicult intervals 
and rhythms have been avoided wherever possible. 

A prominent supervisor of public school music says: 

" To say that I am delighted with Book IV. does not express all I feel. 
It is a logical and fitting climax to the splendid series. 

" The material is wonderfully fine and complete, vi'hile the arrangement 
and method are most excellent. As a song book it is without a peer. I 
congratulate you most heartily on your newest publication. I shall be 
glad to use it in my work." 

Accompaniments for New American Music Reader, Number Four, 

90 cents ncL 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



The Modern English Course 

BY 
HENRY P. EMERSON 

Superintendent of Education, Buffalo, New York 
AND 

IDA C. BENDER 

Supervisor of Primary Grades, Buffalo, New York 

Book I — Elementary Lessons in English 

Cloth, i2mo, ix 4- 246 pages, illustrated, 35 cents net 

Book II — A Practical English Grammar 

Cloth, i2mo, xiv + 400 pages, 60 cents net 

These books aim to present the subject of language in accord- 
ance with modern principles of teaching, and because they are 
based on a study of the usage of the best writers and speakers of 
modern English. 

These books aim to give the young — 

(i) Ability to express their own thoughts and to understand the 
thoughts of others ; 

(2) Clear insight into jthe structure of the English sentence ; 

(3) Effectiveness in the use of language ; 

(4) Appreciation of its higher uses in literature. 

The books are written in good English. The authors are 
masters of an excellent style of writing, and they have given 
tlieir work a quality and finish which is educating and refining 
in the highest degree. The illustrative sentences in both books 
have been selected with great care from standard literature, and 
they are valuable in themselves either for the information or the 
suggestive thought they contain. 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York 



"""' fcW *^'*- 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



SAN 20 t512 



LIBHAHY Uh UUNUHLbb 




011 527 674 8 



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